Neolithic Revolution and the Rise of Civilizations
The Neolithic Revolution
The disappearance of ice fauna in many places forced the steppe, which was adapted to the cold, to migrate to other regions. Humans began to enclose animals for their milk and meat, and thus arose the first livestock species. The domesticated species were the ox, horse, sheep, goat, and dog. Both humans were interested in the cultivation of plants. Women, who were in charge of recollection, noticed that when seeds fell to the earth, plants grew. Thus, agriculture arose. The first crops were wheat, rice, and maize. The need to live together to cultivate the land made humans sedentary. They started to live in villages.
Life in the Neolithic
Villages were often surrounded by a fence to protect them from other animals. Besides human housing, the villages had stables for animals and spaces to save the harvests. The Neolithic era produced large changes:
- Polished stone was used to make tools, such as hoes to plow the land and sickles to harvest.
- The clasp began to manufacture fabric from animal hair using rudimentary looms.
- Ceramics were invented to mold containers for eating and cooking.
The Age of Metals
This was an epoch of inventions. The first metal used was copper, followed by bronze and iron. These metals allowed the development of utensils, such as tools, weapons, and jewelry.
Three important inventions were made:
- The wheel: Made transportation easier on carts.
- Sailing: Allowed the transportation of goods and people.
- The plow: Allowed for larger areas to be cultivated with the help of animals.
Life in the Age of Metals
The search for metals gave a strong impetus to trade and the emergence of new cities. New occupations arose, such as traders, who bought and sold goods, and priests, who were in charge of religious rites. Warriors defended the populations.
The Beliefs
In the Neolithic era, there was a cult to the Mother Goddess, who was believed to protect crops and livestock. Her fertility was represented by clay figurines depicting females.
During the Neolithic and the Age of Metals, there was a great development in the belief in the afterlife and the cult of the dead. The deceased were buried with their jewelry, tools, and weapons, which were believed to protect them. The place where the bodies were buried was called the necropolis.
Art
Neolithic Paintings
In the Neolithic era, humans painted on walls, depicting hunting or gathering scenes. Usually, the paintings showed people dancing and were monochromatic. These paintings are found in the Levant area.
Megaliths
At the end of the Neolithic era, large stone structures, or megaliths, were built.
- Menhirs: Large stones stuck vertically in the ground, where the sun was worshipped.
- Dolmens: Structures composed of large vertical stone walls that formed a group burial site.
- Cromlechs: Circular enclosures formed by many menhirs, possibly used as sanctuaries.
The Neolithic in Andalusia
Andalusia was home to the first Neolithic communities. They cultivated wheat and barley and raised cows, sheep, goats, and pigs. The first Neolithic settlements appeared in Andalusia, and ceramic production developed and varied.
The Age of Metals in Andalusia
Copper Age
The Copper Age saw the development of the culture of Los Millares. This settlement was situated on a small promontory near the copper town of Gádor. Los Millares was one of the first fortified cities in the West, surrounded by defensive walls with towers. Outside the walls, a necropolis with approximately 100 graves was discovered.
Bronze Age
The culture of El Argar developed in this area. The inhabitants of El Argar worked with bronze and had physical contact with other peoples with whom they traded. They also created a distinctive pottery of dark color, polished surface, and no decoration.
The River Civilizations: Mesopotamia
The Emergence of Writing
Writing appeared in Mesopotamia more than 5,000 years ago. While people lived in villages, it was easy to memorize important data. However, as the villages grew, it became necessary to create a system to record data, such as taxation and trade.
From Cities to Empires
During the Age of Metals, the first cities governed by a king appeared. The first great civilizations developed in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China around 5,000 years ago. These are called river civilizations and have three great features:
- Strong political power: Power was concentrated in a king who dictated laws and rules and often had religious functions.
- Highly hierarchical society: The population was divided into two groups: a privileged minority who owned most of the land and held the main offices, and a majority who were under their rule.
- Construction of great works: The kings promoted the construction of palaces, canals, temples, and tombs.
History of Mesopotamia
The region of Mesopotamia was dry, but the construction of canals allowed for intense agricultural development. Mesopotamia is divided into two regions: Upper Mesopotamia, or Assyria, inhabited by the Assyrians, and Lower Mesopotamia, or Chaldea, in the south, inhabited by the Sumerians and the Akkadians.
Population and Society
The privileged groups had all the rights and owned most of the wealth.
- Aristocracy: Formed by the king, his family, and the nobility.
- Priests: In charge of religious sites.
- Scribes: Important officials.
The rest of the population consisted of free people who had some rights and slaves who had none.
- Peasants: Rented land surrounding the city, which belonged to the king or the temple.
- Artisans: Worked in workshops.
Women were owned by men, and if they worked, they were paid half of what men earned.
Culture of Mesopotamia
Religion
The Mesopotamians were polytheistic. Enlil was the god of the winds, and Ishtar was the goddess of love, war, and fertility. The gods manifested themselves through natural phenomena.
Architecture
The Mesopotamians used arches and vaults in their constructions. The most important buildings were the temples and palaces, where the king and nobility resided.
- Temples: Owned lands and workshops and served as the headquarters for the government, courts of justice, and schools.
- Ziggurats: Astronomical observatories, places of worship, or divination centers.
- Palaces: Served as the residence of the king.
The cities were surrounded by brick walls with four fortified gates.
Sculpture
- Statues: Usually male, representing gods, kings, or high officials. They are depicted in a standing or sitting position, with a lack of movement and a very expressive face with large eyes.
- Reliefs: Often made on stone, depicting important political or religious events.
Architectural Elements
- Arch: A curved element that fills a gap between two pillars or two points.
- Vault: Formed by a succession of arches and covers a wide area.