NEP and the Rise of Stalin: Soviet Economic and Political Transformation
The New Economic Policy (NEP)
The Soviet economy faced collapse, marked by peasant uprisings and the Kronstadt rebellion in March 1921. In response, Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP) to improve living conditions and quell resistance. The NEP reversed the abolition of private ownership and state control of industry and agriculture, creating a mixed economy. By 1926, the economy had surpassed previous levels. However, the return to market mechanisms drove up prices and exacerbated social inequalities, benefiting small industrialists and wealthy peasants (kulaks). This strengthened internal opposition to the mixed economy.
From Lenin to Stalin: The Creation of the Third International
Russian revolutionaries believed that socialist parties had become too focused on democracy and abandoned the goal of dismantling capitalism. To address this, the Bolsheviks advocated for a renewed Marxism and the creation of revolutionary parties, leading to the establishment of the Third International (Comintern) in 1919. The Comintern called on all socialist parties to join this new revolutionary body. This proposal divided socialists, with some supporting accession and others opposing it. In 1920, the 21 Conditions were approved, outlining the requirements for parties wishing to join, resulting in the formation of communist parties adhering to Leninism.
The Expansion of the Communist Revolution
Lenin and Trotsky aimed to spread the revolution internationally. A key effort was the Spartacist uprising in Germany in 1919, which sought to establish a communist regime. However, the attempt failed, resulting in the deaths of leaders like Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg. Communist parties were formed across Europe, aiming to expand the Soviet Revolution’s objectives globally.
The Death of Lenin and the Struggle for Power
Lenin’s death in 1924 triggered a power struggle among Bolshevik leaders. The main contenders were Trotsky and Stalin. Trotsky represented the radical wing, advocating for socialist revolution, collectivization, the spread of revolution in Europe (permanent revolution), and a more democratic system. Stalin, representing conservative positions, proposed a mixed economy, building socialism in one country, and consolidating political power within the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). By 1927, Stalin had gained control, steering the revolution towards authoritarianism. He ended democracy, the NEP, and implemented forced collectivization, eliminating opponents and establishing a dictatorship based on his absolute power within the CPSU and the state.
The Forced Collectivization of Agriculture
During the first five-year plan, Stalin initiated the collectivization of land in 1928, aiming to modernize farming. Peasants were urged to join collective farms (kolkhozes) or state farms (sovkhozes), but this was met with resistance, particularly from kulaks. To overcome this, private property was abolished in 1929. A large propaganda campaign supported collectivization, often accompanied by repression and violence against those who resisted. By 1935, 94% of the land was collectivized, with approximately 2 million kulaks deported and many dying.