New Journalism, Postmodernism, and Cultural Shifts
What is New Journalism?
New Journalism emerged in the 1960s and 70s as a reflection of the “crazy” American society, often surpassing fiction in its vivid portrayal of real events. It aimed for an objective point of view (POV) while immersing the reader, effectively turning reality into skeptical entertainment. Stylistically innovative, it often featured the narrator as a “method actor,” participating in the events described. Publications like *The New Yorker* were key platforms for this style.
Four Stylistic Devices in New Journalism
New Journalism employed several techniques to achieve realism and authenticity:
- Shifting Third-Person Point of View: Using the third person creates a sense of objectivity, while constant shifts in perspective enhance authenticity, suggesting the writer’s non-involvement.
- Scene-by-Scene Construction: Narratives are structured like TV shows, presenting scenes sequentially with the narrator providing ongoing commentary.
- Extensive Dialogue: This subjective technique fosters a sense of authentic communication.
- Status-Life Symbols: Tom Wolfe, in particular, emphasized symbols (clothing, decoration, behavior) to convey a character’s social standing.
These devices created a non-linear, oral-sounding rhetoric, emulating television and transforming journalism into an art form.
New Journalism: Punctuation and Typography
New Journalism was visually striking, using exclamation points, dashes, dots, and italics to mimic a person’s thought process. Punctuation and typography were often exaggerated, resembling cartoonish elements (e.g., Mickey Mouse) or calligrams. Colloquial metaphors, contemporary slang, and sentences centered on verbs or adverbs contributed to sensationalism, sometimes risking manipulation of the truth. These stylistic choices aimed to capture and maintain the reader’s attention.
New Journalism: Innovations in Language and Syntax
The language was accessible—light, casual, and colloquial—avoiding overly complex vocabulary. Unlike surfiction writers, new journalists rarely displayed self-consciousness. The style resembled personal correspondence: immediate and personal. Connections to modernism were evident in the embrace of colloquialism and the pursuit of capturing orality in writing.
Tom Wolfe and the “Happiness Explosion”
Tom Wolfe observed that despite war and poverty, Americans were experiencing a period of enjoyment, which he termed “the crazy fun.” He focused on subcultures like hippies and surfers to provide insight into the era. While acknowledging political tensions within groups like the hippies, Wolfe argued that the prevailing mood was one of a “happiness explosion.”
Characteristics of Surfiction
Surfiction, an experimental writing style of the 1960s and 70s, shared connections with modernism and early postmodernism. It was characterized by:
- Paranoia with cybernetics and the communication revolution.
- Experimental use of interior monologues and idiosyncratic language.
- Traces of surrealism and perspectivism.
- Blending of high and low culture.
- Pastiche technique (cutting and pasting from other works).
- Literature of exhaustion and ventriloquism.
- Meta-literature and self-referentiality.
- Alienation techniques.
- Absurdity, fatalism, black humor, irony, parody, and uncertainty.
Postmodernism: Social and Political Perspectives
Socially and politically, postmodernism saw the rise of marginal voices and cultural, ethnic, and social differences. It coincided with the postcolonial condition. Changes included the decline of the traditional working class and the rise of the service sector. Social movements focused on symbolic struggles and societal control. Minority literatures explored individual insertion within communities, often emphasizing communal traditions and beliefs.
Postmodernity vs. Postmodernism
Postmodernism evolved from modernism, both continuing and contrasting with its predecessor. Modernity’s superpower economy gave way to postmodernity’s capitalism and consumerism, characterized by:
- An informational society (TV, mass media, magazines).
- A blurring of distinctions between high and low culture.
- Loss of aesthetic autonomy.
- Dissolution of the megapolis.
- Emphasis on language (“the linguistic turn”).
- Growth of countercultures, subcultures, and ethnic cultures.
The New York School and its Characteristics
The New York School, a movement of the 1950s and 60s (with Frank O’Hara as a key figure), shared similarities with the Beats in their rebelliousness and rejection of convention. Their poetry was:
- Ironic and irreverent, sometimes insulting to authority.
- Experimental and intellectually demanding.
- Influenced by French poetry (Baudelaire, Apollinaire, surrealism).
- Personal, intense, diaristic, and often intimate.
- Fascinated with city life.
- Focused on the act of writing poetry (metaliterature).
- Narrative or dramatic, resembling mini-stories or microplays.
- Playful, regarding poetry as a game.
Language Poetry
Language poetry, prominent in the 1970s and 80s (with figures like Lynn Hejinian, Charles Bernstein, and Ron Silliman), was a diverse movement, primarily based in San Francisco and New York. It developed through magazines (like *L=A=N=G=U=A=G=E*) and anthologies. Key features included:
- Rejection of tradition and personalism.
- Explicit attention to language and style.
- Exploration of diverse styles (idiolects, sociolects).
- Use of non-transparent language, requiring active decoding.
- Collaboration between author and reader.
- Resistance to the transparency of consumerism and popular media.
Social and Political Postmodernism and Minority Literature
Postmodernism coincided with the rise of new social movements representing diverse ethnic groups and cultures. The Native American Renaissance saw improved education and a re-evaluation of native forms. Themes in Native American literature included living between two worlds, historical revisionism, and the challenges of alcoholism and disconnection.
Hispanic or Latino (Chicano) Literature
Chicano literature focused on Chicanismo (Chicano power, civil rights, and history), exposing racism and discrimination. It blended tradition and experimentation, often incorporating folk stories. Key aspects included:
- Trans-lingual writing (Spanish, English, native Mexican languages).
- Exploration of the US-Mexican border (socially, psychologically, metaphorically).
- Focus on “barrio” life, community, and family.
- Kinship with other minorities (Native Americans).
- Criticism of Anglo-American culture (consumerism, spiritual emptiness).
- Use of fantastic realism as an alternative way of knowing.
Third-Wave Feminism
Third-wave feminism (1980s onward) reacted to the second wave, integrating the perspectives of feminists of color and challenging the notion of a homogeneous group of “women.” It was “sex-positive,” focusing on the empowerment of sexual pleasure and embracing terms like “bitch” or “slut.” Feminist writings often took the form of essays, manifestos, and historical writing.
Ecofeminism
Ecofeminism connects environmental and feminist perspectives. In literature, it appears through:
- Questioning categories like “human” and “animal.”
- Analyzing relationships between humans and nature.
- Criticizing climate change, environmental exploitation, and oppression.
- Connecting social and environmental justice.
- Exploring technological development, human health, pollution, and detachment from nature.
In science fiction, ecofeminism often manifests as:
- Apocalyptic/post-apocalyptic worlds.
- Climate change and its consequences.
- Criticism of hierarchies and exploration of new social structures.
- Exploitation of women’s bodies.
Queer Politics/Writing or Theory
Queer politics and theory, connected to third-wave feminism, arose from Gay and Lesbian liberation movements. The AIDS epidemic led to increased activism and a shift toward assimilation and acceptance. “Queer” became an inclusive term, encompassing those deemed socially unacceptable and advocating for broader social justice issues.
Differences Between Gay and Queer Writing
Gay or lesbian fiction was often assimilationist, politically non-confrontational, and focused on conventional lifestyles and love stories. It employed a fairly traditional and elegant style.
Queer writing, conversely, was politically confrontational, anti-assimilationist, and explored unconventional lifestyles and sexualities. It featured experimental styles and narrative structures.
Literature’s Reactions to the Digital Revolution (William Gibson)
Three types of literature emerged in response to the digital revolution:
- Computer-Generated Literature (CGL): Created through or imitating computer programming (e.g., Alison Knowles, George Pierce).
- Computer-Based Literature (CBL): Hypertext literature, altering text presentation and connection (e.g., Michael Joyce, Shelley Jackson).
- Literature About Digital Environments (LADE): Conventional (print-based) literature set in digitally modified environments, often cyberpunk science fiction (e.g., William Gibson). Cyberpunk often features fatalistic endings, technologically modified bodies, and critiques of contemporary policies.
The Relationship Between Literature and Media
Literature and media have increasingly interacted, with literature influenced by telegraphy, newspapers, photography, cinema, radio, and television. Media shapes perception and structures of reality, as explored by Marshall McLuhan in works like “The Medium is the Massage.” Orality is a key element in the media-literature relationship.
Toni Cade Bambara
Toni Cade Bambara, a prominent writer of the 1960s and 70s, addressed wealth inequality and empowerment in her work. In “The Lesson,” she contrasts characters like Sylvia and Miss Moore to explore perspectives on money and activism, highlighting the disparities between social classes and encouraging social change.
David Wojnarowicz: Queer Writing
David Wojnarowicz, a visual artist and writer who died of AIDS, viewed his queerness as both a curse and a tool. His work, often political and experimental (e.g., *Close to the Knives*), explored themes of AIDS, politics, drugs, street life, art, nature, family, friendship, and acceptance, offering a personal perspective on his life.
Postmodernism in Paul Auster’s *City of Glass*
Paul Auster’s *City of Glass* exemplifies postmodern themes of identity and multiple realities. The protagonist, Daniel Quinn, adopts various identities (William Wilson, Paul Auster), blurring the lines between reality and fiction. The novel also explores the importance of language, with characters like P.S. Junior and Senior representing different linguistic approaches. *City of Glass* questions the nature of literature and reality, examining whether reality is purely textual.
Ecofeminism in Marge Piercy’s *Woman on the Edge of Time*
Marge Piercy’s *Woman on the Edge of Time* explores ecofeminist themes through the contrast between a utopian future (Mattapoisett) and a dystopian one. Luciente, from Mattapoisett, embodies community, equality, and respect for the environment. Connie, the protagonist, initially struggles with these concepts due to her upbringing in a society based on dualisms and hierarchies. The utopian world rejects gendered language and traditional family structures, promoting gender equality. The dystopian world, conversely, represents environmental exploitation and social inequality. Connie’s eventual embrace of ecofeminist values reflects the novel’s central theme.