Nietzsche’s Philosophy: Context, Ideas, and Influence
I. Historical Contextualization and Philosophical Influences
1. Revolutionary Europe
The 19th century in Europe was characterized by ongoing revolutionary movements, notably in 1830 and 1848. These movements saw the bourgeoisie gain political recognition and achieve power through liberal regimes. The 1848 revolutions were particularly significant as they marked the emergence of opposition from the proletariat, the working class created by the industrial revolution, against the bourgeoisie. Nietzsche, however, was ideologically opposed to any revolutionary attempts, viewing them as expressions of a herd mentality that stifled individual freedom. He believed true freedom was achieved through struggle and even war, a perspective that contrasted sharply with the prevailing liberalism of the time.
2. The Romantic Aesthetics
Romanticism, a cultural movement originating in Germany and England with figures like Goethe and Byron, played a crucial role in shaping the intellectual landscape of the 19th century. This ideology represented a reaction against the Enlightenment, emphasizing individuality, passion, and national heritage. Nietzsche’s philosophy was deeply connected to the romantic atmosphere. His critical views on culture and his admiration for Schopenhauer, whom he considered the last significant German philosopher, were rooted in romanticism. Nietzsche saw Schopenhauer’s pessimism as a major event in the destiny of Western culture.
3. German Nationalism
The rise of romantic nationalism in Germany led to a surge in nationalistic sentiment, particularly after the Napoleonic invasion. This culminated in the establishment of a unified German state under Prussian dominance in 1871. Nietzsche, however, was critical of this development. In works like Twilight of the Idols, he condemned both democracy and the German Reich as decadent forms of the state. He believed that the new Germany was losing its spiritual depth, with intellectual mediocrity becoming pervasive. Ultimately, Nietzsche distanced himself from German nationalism, both politically and culturally. This makes the Nazi regime’s later admiration for his philosophy, after his death, all the more surprising.
4. Scientific Progress
The 19th century witnessed remarkable scientific advancements, particularly in the experimental sciences. Nietzsche’s stance on science was complex. He shared positivism’s goal of overcoming outdated philosophical concepts and its emphasis on scientific knowledge. However, he diverged from positivism on two key points. First, he criticized the tendency of science to reduce the complexities of life to mere quantitative relationships, arguing that this approach failed to capture the essence of phenomena like music. Second, he rejected the positivist belief in objective truth, arguing that all knowledge is interpretation. Nietzsche favored the intuitive insights of the creative artist over the methodical approach of the scientist, believing that art could reveal hidden meanings in reality. Despite his critiques, Nietzsche remained informed about scientific developments, demonstrating an original and insightful perspective on the role of science in modern society.
Relationship with Other Authors: Plato
Nietzsche’s philosophical position stood in stark contrast to Platonism, a school of thought he frequently criticized.
Relation to Plato’s Philosophy
The relationship between Nietzsche’s and Plato’s philosophies can be examined through three key aspects:
A) The Critique of Platonism:
Much of Nietzsche’s work is dedicated to critiquing the fundamental assumptions of Platonic philosophy. His anti-Platonism is a recurring theme, particularly evident in Twilight of the Idols, where he challenges the notion of a provable “real world.”
B) The Claiming of Heraclitus:
In contrast to Plato’s emphasis on permanent realities, influenced by Parmenides, Nietzsche favored the metaphysical position of Heraclitus, who emphasized change and flux.
C) The Philosopher and the Superman:
Despite their differences, Nietzsche and Plato share a commonality in their anthropology, often overlooked by commentators. Both philosophers idealized a human type distinct from the ordinary person:
- The Platonic Philosopher: For Plato, the philosopher, through rigorous intellectual effort, gains access to the true reality.
- The Superman: Nietzsche’s ideal of the Superman is an individual who achieves a revaluation of all values, challenging conventional Western morality.
Both the Platonic philosopher and the Superman are superior beings who feel a responsibility to guide humanity. This sets them apart from what Nietzsche termed the “herd morality.”
Critical Assessment
To fully understand Nietzsche’s work, it’s crucial to consider its overall meaning and impact.
A) Nietzsche’s Idea of God:
While Nietzsche’s philosophy contains numerous attacks on the idea of God and Christian morality, it would be inaccurate to label him simply as irreligious. Certain aspects of his thought and personality reveal a man struggling against the concept of God, which he considered a psychological and moral deception.
B) Nietzsche and the New Man:
Nietzsche’s concept of nihilism anticipated the crisis of values that would characterize the 20th century. However, beneath his anti-humanism lies a hope for the future of humanity, a future that transcends the limitations of Western culture and its traditional values.
C) Nietzschean Philosophy’s Relevance Today:
Many of Nietzsche’s themes remain relevant in contemporary society. His influence extends beyond philosophy to literature and even politics. He rejected the masses as a social herd, emphasizing the importance of exceptional individuals who could shape history. His critique of mediocrity in society has been subject to misinterpretations, notably by the Nazi regime, which falsely admired him and attempted to align his concept of the Superman with their racist ideology. It’s important to acknowledge the manipulation of Nietzsche’s work by the Nazis and to recognize the true complexity and depth of his philosophical thought.