Nietzsche’s Superman: Political Theory, Ethics, and Freedom
The Nietzschean Superman
Nietzsche’s philosophy explores the path from myth to reason. He describes Socrates and Plato as marking the victory of the Apollonian over the Dionysian. For Nietzsche, Greek tragedy achieved a balance between these opposing forces. After the ‘death of God,’ Nietzsche introduces the concept of the superman, free from the constraints of God and science, as a successor. This ‘superman’ is presented as a creator of new values, favorable to life.
Political Ideals in Ancient Greece
In ancient Greece, humans were considered social beings by nature. This social nature was viewed positively: “The common good is above the individual good.” Virtuous life was expected to govern society.
Political Theory in the Middle Ages and Renaissance
Thomas Aquinas adopted the core principles of Greek political theory. During the Renaissance, philosophical inquiries into politics focused more on practical matters. However, the concept of the common good remained central to major Renaissance thinkers.
Political Philosophy in the Modern Era
Modern philosophy involves separating political space from other domains like morality and theology. This separation led to social contract theory, where social life arises from an agreement between individuals. This process saw the decline of absolute monarchy and the rise of parliamentary government.
Hobbes’ Perspective
Hobbes argued that the origin of society lies in natural human selfishness. His view of humanity is summarized in the statement that “man is a wolf to man.” This necessitates a contract to prevent natural selfishness from becoming destructive. Hobbes believed the monarch’s role was to ensure this commitment was upheld.
Locke’s Perspective
Locke argued that society results from a covenant between individuals. In a state of nature, humans exist in freedom and equality, possessing two key rights: the right to private property and the right to punish. Locke proposed a covenant where individuals relinquish the power to punish to a legitimate authority, while retaining the right to private property. He also advocated for the separation of powers (legislative, executive, and judicial), essential for a democratic system.
Theories on the Origin of Society
Explanations for the origin of society can be classified into three types:
- Theories of human sociality (Aristotle, Aquinas)
- Contractual theories (Hobbes, Locke)
- Naturalistic theories (Hegel, Marx), which argue that society has primacy over the individual.
Ethics, Politics, and Freedom
Determinism is the philosophical thesis that denies free will. Analyzing different types of determinism is valuable for understanding whether freedom is real or apparent, and how freedom has been understood throughout history.
Theological Determinism
In the Middle Ages, free will was questioned in relation to God’s existence and attributes. Everything is predetermined in divine knowledge, including human actions and their final destination.
Physical Determinism
Modern science presents a mechanistic view of the world and humanity. Every fact is reducible to physical size and movement, and the universe is explicable by laws. Laplace formulated this determinism, stating that someone who knew all the laws of nature at any given time could explain the entire universe.
Bio-psychological and Sociocultural Determinism
Contemporary theses include:
- Pavlov (biological determinism): Human beings are determined by their genetic heritage.
- Durkheim (social determinism): The influence of the social group is critical in shaping human beings.
- Skinner (educational determinism): Humans are products of the education they receive in childhood.