Normative Ethics and Moral Action in a Democratic State
Normative Ethical Theories
Ethical theories are models that guide moral subjects. The main normative ethical theories are:
Consequentialist Theory
This theory posits that an action is morally right if it produces positive outcomes.
Ethical Egoism (Hobbes)
Individuals should be guided by their self-interest, which often aligns with community interests. Selfishness must be rationalized. Altruism can sometimes be selfish.
- Pros: Easy to understand and attractive because it links duty to desire.
- Cons: Doesn’t resolve conflicts well and doesn’t fully consider human dignity.
Utilitarianism (Mill)
Before acting, we should weigh the potential consequences and choose the action that brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people. Following rules usually leads to greater happiness.
- Pros: Offers a clear criterion for moral decision-making.
- Cons: Difficult to calculate what will cause the most happiness for the most people.
Theories of Duties
Kantian Ethics
Kant argued that happiness is not a suitable measure of an action’s moral worth. An action is moral if it’s performed out of duty, as dictated by reason. It’s rational to act in ways that could become universal standards.
Kant’s Categorical Imperative
- Pros: Emphasizes acting rightly out of duty.
- Cons: Doesn’t consider consequences.
Prima Facie Duties
Certain moral properties of actions are related to inherent duties. These are called prima facie duties.
- Pros: Attempts to address the limitations of Kantian ethics by considering consequences.
- Cons: Faces challenges, such as the claim that prima facie duties are self-evident.
Virtue Theory
We inherit conflicting moral traditions. We learn by emulating role models and striving for an ideal of the good life.
- Pros: Doesn’t reduce morality to a set of rules, allowing for personal exploration.
- Cons: Challenges the universality of morality and risks relativism.
Moral Action
Moral actions are based on moral grounds, which include motives and beliefs.
Moral Code, Morals, and Morality
- Moral Code: Values, principles, and moral norms.
- Morals: Moral ideas.
- Morality: Moral decisions and actions.
Characteristics of Moral Action
- Adherence: An internal feeling of obligation to moral standards.
- Compliance: Not enforced by external sanctions.
- Considers the agent’s characteristics and the well-being of others.
Moral Responsibility
Strict Liability
We are responsible for the consequences of our actions.
Moral Responsibility
We are morally responsible in two cases:
- When we have moral duties related to the outcomes of our actions, especially in moral conflicts.
- When our actions are legally punishable (liability).
Evolution of the Concept of Citizenship
Citizenship defines the relationship between an individual and the state. A citizen is a full member of the community, participating in political life and protected by law as a subject of rights. The modern idea of citizenship evolved from the classical conception. By the 20th century, influenced by the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, the concept tended towards universality, recognizing all humans as subjects of law.
Types of Citizenship
- Political Citizenship: The relationship with the state, including rights (e.g., voting) and obligations.
- Social Citizenship: Access to welfare and public services funded by taxes.
- Economic Citizenship: Ensuring economic rights related to work, production, and consumption.
- Civil Citizenship: Freedom of association and expression, with respect for diverse views.
- Intercultural Citizenship: Respect and engagement among citizens from different cultural backgrounds.
The Democratic State
Functions of the State
- Organizes social life and addresses problems only a state can handle.
- Acts as an instrument of social control.
Evolution of the State
- Absolutist State
- Liberal State: Dominance of the constitution and protection of individual rights.
- Democratic State: Voting rights and democracy.
- Social Democratic State: State intervention to create and distribute wealth fairly.
Key Aspects of Democracy
- Power emanates from the people.
- All citizens have access to political processes.
- Rulers are elected periodically.
- Universal suffrage.
- Citizens control power through oversight mechanisms.
- Freedom of association in political organizations.
- Guaranteed fundamental rights.
- Freedom and plurality of information.