North American Revolution: Independence and the Rise of the United States
5.1 The North American Revolution and the Rise of the United StatesThe rebellion of Britain’s North American colonies was the first bourgeois revolution, preceding others (e.g., the French Revolution, the revolutions in Spain’s American colonies). Its importance lies in being the first real-world implementation of a liberal political organization based on Enlightenment ideals.
The 13 Colonies Before the RevolutionIn the mid-18th century, Great Britain had 13 colonies on the North American Atlantic coast.13 Colonies Map The eight Northern colonies were strong in industry and commerce, led by a wealthy bourgeoisie. The five Southern colonies were agricultural (cotton, rice, and tobacco plantations worked by enslaved Black people), and their wealthy class consisted mainly of landowners. They depended on the British Crown (King George III), enjoyed limited autonomy, and British governors held the highest authority. They lacked representation in the British Parliament, which decided issues affecting them, such as taxation. This lack of political participation fueled unrest among colonists seeking greater autonomy.
Causes of the Revolution: Structural FactorsSince the mid-18th century, several factors (economic dependence, lack of political autonomy) strained relations between colonists and the British government. The trigger for the revolt followed the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763), which left England in debt. To alleviate this financial crisis, the Crown imposed new taxes on the colonists. One such tax was the Stamp Act (1765), taxing official documents and printed materials. Colonial opposition forced the Crown to repeal it. However, other taxes followed in 1767 (Townshend Acts), targeting paper, glass, lead, and tea. The colonists’ strong reaction led the Crown to withdraw all taxes except the tea tax, resulting in the Boston Tea Party (1773). In September 1774, a congress in Philadelphia (Pennsylvania) promoted colonial collaboration against Britain. While not yet advocating independence, the congress issued demands in a Bill of Rights and Grievances.
The War of IndependenceThe war began in April 1775 with the Battle of Lexington and had several characteristics: It involved contrasting military approaches. The British regular army, reinforced by 7,000 colonial mercenaries and various Indian tribes, was superior on paper. However, its distant supply lines hampered effectiveness. The colonial forces, initially disorganized, were transformed by George Washington into an effective military instrument.
International InvolvementIn 1778, following a plea for help from Benjamin Franklin, the absolutist powers of France (Lafayette) and Spain intervened to weaken England. The Netherlands also participated.
Stages of the WarAfter an initial British advantage, the conflict turned following the colonial victory at Saratoga (1777). The Battle of Yorktown (1781) decided the war’s outcome, concluding in 1783 with the Treaty of Versailles, recognizing the colonies’ independence.
Creating a New StateThe new nation established values and institutions inspired by liberal and Enlightenment ideals. It guaranteed inherent natural, individual, and inalienable rights: life, liberty, equality, property, the right to overthrow unjust government (national sovereignty), legal defense (habeas corpus), and freedom of speech, assembly, press, and religion. These rights were enshrined in the Declaration of Independence (Philadelphia, July 4, 1776), written by Jefferson, and the Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776).
THEME 6: THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION. A) The British Case
Revolution implies an abrupt and sudden change. The Industrial Revolution was an abrupt and sudden economic change, a process transforming craft production into industrial mass production. Beginning in Britain during the 18th century, it spread during the 19th century to France, Belgium, Germany, the USA, and Japan.
Characteristics of the Industrial Revolution:
- Replacement of human labor with machines
- Replacement of animal power with mechanical power
- New raw materials:
- Energy sources (coal replacing wood)
- Workable materials (cotton, iron)
These changes transformed: production organization (mass production), working relationships (factory owners/workers), workplace location (factories), and population distribution (urbanization).
Why did the Industrial Revolution begin in Britain?
Several factors contributed:
- A political system controlled by the bourgeoisie.
- Changes in British agriculture: new laws enabled enclosures, ending open fields. This led to:
- Urban migration (cheap labor for factories)
- Land concentration, mechanization, increased production, feeding a growing population and generating capital for industrial investment.
- Population growth (tripling between 1750 and 1850) due to improved hygiene, medicine, and food production. This provided cheap labor and consumers for industrial goods. Surplus population emigrated to America and the colonies.
- Technological innovations (inventions and machines). The textile industry’s demand for iron spurred the development of the steel industry, requiring coal mining and iron mining. The steam engine’s application to transport led to:
- Railroads, boosting steel and coal industries.
- Steamboats, further developing coal and iron mining.
These factors both caused and were fueled by the Industrial Revolution, creating a cycle of cause and effect.