Ockham’s Political Philosophy: Temporal vs. Spiritual Power
Ockham’s Text: Historical Context
William of Ockham was born between 1280 and 1290 and died in 1350. He is considered a pivotal figure transitioning between the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. The classic problems that had been articulated by scholarly discourse were resolved by Ockham, paving the way for modernity. Ockham’s time was marked by a crisis within the Church, stemming from the Avignon Papacy and the dispute between the papacy and the empire. This conflict began in the late thirteenth century with Pope Boniface VIII and King Philip IV of France and continued throughout Ockham’s life with Popes John XXII, Benedict XII, and Clement VII, and Emperor Louis of Bavaria. Ockham’s involvement in this controversy served as the impetus for his political writings.
Theme: Autonomy of Temporal Power
The central theme is the autonomy of temporal power and the illegitimacy of any interference by the spiritual power in the temporal realm.
Key Ideas
- The right to temporal power does not belong to the authority that Christ gave to St. Peter and his successors, as it does not oppose decency, the honor of God, or the enforcement of evangelical law.
- This right existed legitimately before the institution of the Church of Christ.
- The Pope cannot alter or diminish that right, regardless of cause or blame.
- If the Pope attempts to appropriate or eliminate such duties, he is acting illegitimately. Any sentence from the Pope regarding this would be “None of divine right” because it would amount to a sentence handed down by “A judge who does not own.”
Relationship Between Ideas
The text begins by establishing the theory of separation of powers to justify the origin of temporal power, which predates the institution of the Church. It concludes by declaring illegitimate any temporal power of the Pope, provided there is no “no-fault” explanation. Similar to Ockham’s radical approach to reason and faith, the spiritual and temporal powers, the papacy and the empire, are explicitly separated in his political philosophy.
Explanation of Ideas
Ockham’s thesis is that the papacy cannot claim any authority over temporal power because that rule was not founded by the Pope. It existed before the coming of Christ, founded by the Romans, then transferred to Charlemagne and the Franks, and moved to the Germanic nation. Only the Romans, or those to whom they transferred the power, have the right to imperial election because all men are born free. Although the principle of authority is part of natural law, all men have the natural right to choose their rulers. That freedom is a right that cannot be taken from people, regardless of how they decide to delegate authority. As the Pope is not the source of imperial authority, invading a territory over which he has no jurisdiction is an action attributed to a lack of power. Therefore, its legitimacy and validity are questionable before God and before men.
Context of Ockham’s Political Writings
All of Ockham’s political writings should be viewed within the context of the struggle between the Papacy and the Empire. Despite the circumstantial origin of these writings, Ockham’s philosophy is an attempt to combat the theory of the supremacy of the Church, which had been held since the confrontation between Pope Boniface VIII and King Philip the Fair of France in the late thirteenth century. Ockham argues that the Pope does not have absolute authority, even in the spiritual order. Ockham’s political philosophy represents a step in the gradual process of the State’s independence.