Opera and Zarzuela: A History of Musical Theater
France
Grand Opera
Characterized by a rich harmonic language and elaborate scenery, Grand Opera typically features three to five acts, ballet, and a chorus and orchestra deeply involved in the drama. It presents a succession of musical forms, including romances, cavatinas, arias, and often a passionate duet. Notable examples include Auber’s La Muette de Portici, Rossini’s William Tell, Bellini’s I Puritani, and Wagner’s Rienzi.
Opéra Comique
Favored by the bourgeoisie, Opéra Comique led to the construction of the National Opera House, opened in 1875. Key differences from Grand Opera include the use of spoken dialogue instead of recitative, a smaller cast and orchestra, and a simpler musical language. Plots range from comedy to semi-serious drama. Several variants emerged:
- Opéra Comique: Exemplified by works like The White Lady.
- Lyric Opera: A blend of Opéra Comique and Grand Opera, featuring melodies centered on romantic fantasy or drama on a larger scale than Opéra Comique. Examples include Romeo and Juliet, Faust, Samson et Dalila, and Carmen, the latter set in a realistic Spanish milieu.
- Operetta: Combining spoken and sung passages, often with satirical elements targeting social, economic, and political issues. Operetta heightens the satire and wit of Opéra Comique, incorporating new melodic elements, simpler harmonies and textures, dance rhythms, and sentimental, satirical, and humorous themes.
Italy
Italian opera’s early period saw the prominence of opera buffa with Rossini, Bellini, and Donizetti. Later, opera buffa gave way to serious dramatic themes with Verdi and the Verists.
Rossini
With 32 operas to his name, Rossini’s masterpiece is The Barber of Seville. His style features lively overtures with prominent woodwinds, melodic focus, and arias structured in an allegro style.
Donizetti
Donizetti composed both serious works like Lucia di Lammermoor and buffa operas like Don Pasquale.
Bellini
Bellini’s ten operas, including Norma and La Sonnambula, belong to the serious genre, characterized by intense passion.
Verdi
(1813-1901) Verdi sought to elevate Italian melody, avoiding continuous opera and focusing on themes relevant to the common people. His style emphasizes the human voice over the orchestra, gives importance to the chorus, and uses colorful orchestration, particularly in the second and third acts. His work is divided into three periods:
- Luisa Miller, Nabucco
- Rigoletto, Il Trovatore, La Traviata
- Aida, Otello (tragic), Falstaff (comic)
Verismo
In the late 19th century, the Verismo school emerged, focusing on naturalism. Their works often consisted of a single act, based on recitative and aria. Puccini, while not strictly a Verist, composed works like Turandot, a mythical legend, and others featuring humble protagonists, such as Madame Butterfly, Tosca, and La Bohème.
Germany
German opera’s roots lie in literature and music. Weber shaped Romantic opera, using sonata form in his overtures. His notable works include Der Freischütz and Oberon.
Richard Wagner
Wagner sought to create a new operatic form called music drama, drawing inspiration from German mythology. His ideal was a Gesamtkunstwerk, unifying poetry, music, scenery, and action. He emphasized the orchestra, developed the leitmotif as a unifying element, and created an ‘infinite melody’ to facilitate dialogue. His work is divided into periods:
- Rienzi
- Exploration of love, exemplified by Tannhäuser
- The Ring of the Nibelung cycle, requiring a specially built theater, and Parsifal, a religious drama.
The Zarzuela
A theatrical form in two or three acts, Zarzuela incorporates music, singing, and dance alongside spoken dialogue.
Zarzuela Grande
(1851-1880) Typically in three or four acts, preceded by a prelude and featuring a chorus. Acts comprise five or six multi-section numbers, often based on historical Spanish themes. Sung text predominates over spoken dialogue.
Zarzuela Chica
Single-act works with four to six musical numbers, beginning with an orchestral introduction and chorus, often using popular themes. Notable examples include La Gran Vía.
Género Chico
(1880-1910) Short, one-act comic plays performed in theaters. Plots typically revolve around a couple facing obstacles but achieving a happy ending. Music draws from popular urban folklore, particularly Andalusian traditions. Notable examples include La Revoltosa, La Verbena de la Paloma.
The Lied
A short composition setting a poem to music. Three common forms exist: strophic (A-A-A), modified strophic (A-B-A), and through-composed (A-B-C).
Schubert
Known for his masterful union of music and lyrics, Schubert set 41 poems by Schiller to music.
Schumann
A Romantic composer, Schumann emphasized color in works like Dichterliebe (A Poet’s Love).
Brahms
Brahms composed 260 Lieder, often drawing inspiration from folk music.
Mahler
Mahler composed Lieder cycles and symphonies, his Das Lied von der Erde (The Song of the Earth) being a prime example. His Lieder are often imbued with pessimism.
Wolf
Wolf aimed to closely reflect the text in his music, as seen in his Italienisches Liederbuch (Italian Songbook) and Spanisches Liederbuch (Spanish Songbook).