Operant Conditioning: Principles and Applications
Operant Conditioning
Definition
Operant conditioning is a learning process where behavior is controlled by consequences. The behavior is instrumental in achieving a desired outcome or reward.
Comparison with Classical Conditioning
In classical conditioning, learning occurs through association (stimulus-response). In operant conditioning, learning occurs through consequences. Reinforcement in classical conditioning is independent of the subject’s behavior, while in operant conditioning, reinforcement is a direct consequence of the subject’s actions.
Thorndike’s Contributions and Laws of Learning
According to Thorndike, learning is the establishment of a stimulus-response (S-R) connection. The animal is rewarded for successful responses (escaping the cage).
Law of Effect
“When a connection between a modifiable situation and a response is established, and a state of satisfaction accompanies or follows the response, the strength of the connection increases. When a state of discomfort accompanies or follows the response, its strength diminishes.” (Rewards and punishments).
Punishment suppresses a response but doesn’t eliminate it; it only informs the subject what not to do. Rewards, however, do produce learning.
Law of Exercise
(Importance of practice). S-R connections are strengthened by use and weakened by disuse.
Law of Readiness
(Motivation and preparedness). When an individual is ready (willing) to act, doing so is reinforcing, and not doing so is aversive.
Educational Implications of Thorndike’s Laws
According to Thorndike (1912), teachers should apply the law of effect to help students acquire positive habits:
- Actively cultivate habits; don’t expect them to form spontaneously.
- Avoid forming habits that will need to be unlearned later.
- Don’t form two or more habits when one suffices.
- Other things being equal, form habits in the way they are to be practiced (integrate learning applications with curriculum content).
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Skinner viewed conditioning and the strengthening of behavior as a result of reinforcement. There are two types of behavioral responses: S-type (Pavlovian), where a stimulus elicits a reflexive response, and R-type (operant), where the response operates on the environment to produce an effect.
Basic Processes
Skinner (1950) proposed that behavior occurs within a three-term contingency: Antecedent-Behavior-Consequence (ABC).
A positive discriminative stimulus (Sd) signals that reinforcement will follow a behavior. A negative discriminative stimulus signals that reinforcement will not follow.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement strengthens a response, increasing the likelihood of its repetition.
Reinforcers
Reinforcers are specific stimuli that facilitate reinforcement. A reinforcer’s value depends on the individual’s history, learning experiences, and current physiological and psychological state. Reinforcers can be primary, secondary, conditioned, or generalized.
Types of Reinforcement and Punishment
- Positive Reinforcement: A behavior is followed by a positive consequence.
- Negative Reinforcement: A behavior is followed by the removal of a negative consequence.
- Positive Punishment: A behavior is followed by a negative consequence.
- Negative Punishment: A behavior is followed by the removal of a positive consequence.
Reinforcement Schedules
Reinforcement schedules determine when and how a response is followed by reinforcement.
- Continuous Reinforcement: Every correct response receives reinforcement.
- Intermittent Reinforcement: Reinforcement is delivered based on a schedule. Types include:
- Fixed Ratio (FR)
- Variable Ratio (VR)
- Fixed Interval (FI)
- Variable Interval (VI)
Premack Principle
A preferred behavior (a favorite activity) can reinforce a less frequent behavior that one wishes to promote.
Punishment
Punishment suppresses a response but doesn’t eliminate it. The punished behavior may return if the threat of punishment is removed. Punishment should be used only when no alternative exists. Educational implications:
- Punishment should be implemented swiftly.
- It should be accompanied by positive reinforcement of appropriate alternative behaviors.
- Duration and intensity should be proportionate to the misconduct.
- Effective and acceptable alternatives should be developed.
- The contingency of punishment should be explained beforehand.
Generalization
Generalization is the extension of a reinforced response to other similar stimuli. It’s not automatic and varies between individuals.
Discrimination
Discrimination is the opposite of generalization. It involves responding to one stimulus but not to others, or responding differently depending on the situation.
Extinction
A learned behavior can disappear if it’s no longer reinforced. The phenomenon of “spontaneous recovery” can occur.
Educational Implications of Operant Conditioning
Promoting Behavior
- Cueing and Prompting: Cueing signals a desired behavior, while prompting provides additional assistance.
- Positive Reinforcement: The primary method for promoting desired behaviors.
- Shaping: Reinforcing successive approximations toward a target behavior.
- Stimulus Control: Some stimuli elicit certain behaviors more readily than others.
- Token Economy: Using conditioned reinforcers to strengthen appropriate behaviors while withholding reinforcement for inappropriate behaviors.
Reducing or Eliminating Behaviors
- Differential Reinforcement of Other Behaviors (DRO): Reinforcing a behavior incompatible with the undesired behavior.
- Response Cost: Loss of reinforcers as a consequence for misbehavior.
- Overcorrection: Requiring the individual to engage in restorative actions. Positive practice involves repeating the correct behavior.
- Token Economy: As above, used to decrease undesired behaviors.
- Satiation: Based on negative practice; having the individual repeat the undesired behavior until they tire of it.
- Time-Out: Removing the individual from the reinforcing environment.