Organic & Inorganic Compounds: Structures & Properties
Organic Compounds
Carbon and hydrogen atoms
Also contain other nonmetals
O, S, N, P
Found in gasoline, medicines, shampoos, plastics, perfumes
Covalent bonds
Low melting and boiling points
Flammable & undergo combustion
Not soluble in water
Inorganic Compounds
High melting and boiling points
Ionic: soluble in water/ do not burn in air
Alkanes, Alkenes, and Alkynes
1:meth, 2:eth, 3:prop, 4:but, 5:pent, 6:hex, 7:hept, 8:oct, 9:non, 10:dec
Alkanes: single bond hydrocarbon
“ane” – methane
Saturated: maximum amount of hydrogen attached to carbon
Strong C-C bonds
React with oxygen gas to make CO2 and H2O in combustion reactions
Release energy when C-C bonds are broken
Alkenes: double bond hydrocarbon C=C
“ene” – ethene
Unsaturated: do not contain the maximum amount of hydrogen atoms
React with hydrogen gas
Increase the number of H atoms and eventually become alkanes
Alkynes: triple bond hydrocarbon
“yne” – ethyne
Unsaturated
– Strong C-C bonds
React with oxygen gas to make CO2 and H2O in combustion reactions
Release energy when C-C bonds are broken
H-C≡C-H ethyne
Structural Isomers
Same chemical formula – atoms connected differently
Affects 3D shape and function
Cis-Trans Isomers
Atoms attached to C atoms on the double bond may form two different structures
Connected in the same order but different configuration
Aromatic Compounds
Benzene
Ring of 6 C atoms each bonded to 1 H atom
Represented by a skeletal formula using a circle in the center
Dyes, paints, TNT
Aspirin, acetaminophen, ibuprofen
An organic compound composed of carbon and hydrogen connected only by a single bond is an alkane.
Hydrocarbons are the primary constituent of fuels.
What is the name for a six-carbon continuous chain alkane? Hexane
How many valence electrons does carbon have? 4
True or false: an organic compound is a compound made from carbon and hydrogen atoms and may contain other nonmetals. True
True or false: isomers are different chemical formulas connected the same. False
When adding H2 to double bonds in vegetable oils, all the following are true except… These compounds are liquid at room temperature.
The compound CH3CH2-SH is in the organic family known as thiols.
An alcohol contains which of the following? Hydroxyl group (-OH)
Alcohols, Ethers, Thiols, and Phenols
Alcohol contains a hydroxyl group (-OH) CH3-OH
Flammable
Soluble to a point
Most are colorless
Liquid at room temperature
Contains a polar -OH group that forms hydrogen bonds with other alcohol molecules and with water
1-3 carbons – soluble in water
Solubility decreases with an increasing number of carbons
Phenol contains a hydroxyl group (-OH) bonded to a benzene ring
Slightly soluble in water
Have -OH group – form H bonds with water
Can react with water to produce phenoxide ions
Nutmeg
Thyme
Cloves
Vanilla
Ether contains a C-O-C group
Contains an -O- between two C groups that are alkyls or aromatic rings
Bent structure
Anesthesia: loss of sensation/consciousness
Blocks signals to awareness centers
Muscular relaxation
Loss of memory, pain
Thiols contain an -SH group
Contain sulfur
Strong/bad odors
Cheese, onions, garlic, oysters
Detect gas leaks
Carbohydrates
Major source of energy from foods
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Saccharides
Produced by photosynthesis
Synthesized from CO2, H2O, and energy from the sun
Oxidized in living cells to produce CO2, H2O, and energy
Monosaccharides: simplest
3-7 C chains
1 carbon in carboxyl group
Aldehyde group: aldose
Ketone group: ketose
Hydroxyl group on all C except the carbonyl C
Classified by the number of C
Triose-3, Tetrose-4, Pentose-5, Hexose-6
Aldopentose: 5 C with aldehyde group
Ketohexose: 6 C with ketone group
Glucose
Fruits, corn syrup, honey
Aldohextose
Dextrose and blood sugar
Fructose: obtained from sucrose
Ketohexose
Galactose
Not found in nature
Obtained from lactose (lactose = glucose + galactose)
Glucose: 70-90 mg/dL
Diabetes can cause hyperglycemia – glucose levels can rise to 450 mg/dL or higher
Hypoglycemia: blood glucose levels decrease to as low as 40 mg/dL
Disaccharides: 2 monosaccharides
2 monosaccharides combined in a dehydration reaction
– maltose: malt sugar
– obtained from the hydrolysis of starch
– lactose
– sucrose
– cannot form an open chain
– cannot be oxidized in the human body – weight gain
Polysaccharides: Many Monosaccharides
– amylose
– 20% of starch
– amylopectin
– 80% of starch
– cellulose: major structural unit of wood
– cannot form hydrogen bonds with water
– insoluble in water
– cannot be digested by humans
Chirality
Same number of atoms but are arranged differently
Non-superimposable mirror image
Achiral: identical and superimposable
1 or more chiral centers
Asymmetric carbon atom
C2H6O CH3-CH2-OH
The mirror image of a chiral compound cannot be superimposed
Enantiomers: stereoisomers that cannot be superimposed
Isomers: same molecular formula
Structural isomers: isomers that have different bonding sequences of atoms
Stereoisomers: isomers that differ in 3D arrangements of atoms around a central carbon
Enantiomers: stereoisomers that are non-superimposable mirror images
Hypoglycemia is a condition in which the glucose level in the blood is lower than normal.
Hyperglycemia is a condition in which the glucose level in the blood is higher than normal.
People who have blood type AB are considered the universal recipient.
People who have blood type O are considered the universal donors.
Which of the following are found in vinegar? Acetic Acid
Which group of carbohydrates cannot be hydrolyzed to give simpler carbohydrates? Monosaccharides
Alkaloids are physiologically active compounds produced by plants that contain heterocyclic amines and can be found in a variety of medicines.
Acid cycle, di- and tricarboxylic acids are oxidized and decarboxylated to produce energy for cells. False
Pepsin is not a digestive enzyme to break down polysaccharides – salivary amylase, maltase, and sucrase are.
Carboxylic Acids, Amines, and Amides
Carboxylic acid contains a carboxyl group – a hydroxyl group attached to the carbon in a carbonyl group
Weak acids
Ionize in water to produce carboxylate ions and hydronium ions
Can lose a proton – 2 O atoms stabilize the negative charge
Metabolic processes
Glycolysis – a molecule of glucose is broken down into 2 molecules of pyruvate
Exercise – pyruvic acid is reduced to give lactic acid
Lipids
Biomolecules
Contain fatty acids/steroid molecules
Soluble in organic solvents – not water
Nonpolar
Carboxylic acid group – fatty acids
4-ring structure in steroids
Functions
Cell membranes
Fat-soluble vitamins
Steroid molecules
Esters
Hydrolyzed to give fatty acids/molecules
Waxes, fats, oils
Steroids
No fatty acids
Cannot be hydrolyzed
4 fused carbon atoms
Fatty Acids
Long, unbranched carbon chains
Carboxylic acid group on one end
12-18 carbon atoms
Insoluble in water
Saturated: No double carbon bonds
Strong dispersion forces
Higher melting points
Solid at room temperature
Animal fats, coconut/palm oil
Harder to digest
Lots of cholesterol – plaques
Unsaturated: Double bonds
Bend the chain
Irregular shape
Fewer interactions
Random distribution
Lower melting points
Monounsaturated
Only 1 double bond
Oils – olive/peanut
Polyunsaturated
At least 2 double bonds
Cottonseed oil, corn oil, sunflower oil
Essential fatty acids from carbs or other fatty acids from the diet
Triglycerides
Fatty storage in the body
Esters of glycerol and fatty acids
Glycerol to glyceryl
Carbohydrates
Major source of energy storage
Hibernation
Hydrogenation reactions
Carbon-carbon double bonds in unsaturated fatty acids react with hydrogen gas to produce single carbon-carbon bonds
Margarine/shortening
Hydrolysis
Triglycerides split into glycerol and 3 fatty acids
Strong acid or enzyme (lipase) needed to digest
Trans Fatty Acids
Cis: same side of double carbon bonds
Trans: opposite side of double carbon bonds
Behave like saturated fatty acids
2-4% of calories
Raise LDL (bad) and lower HDL (good)
Transport nonpolar lipids/cholesterol to cells in the liver
Milk, eggs, beef
Hydrogenation
Deep fried food
Bread, cookies
Chips
Phospholipids
Main component of the cell membrane
Glycerophospholipids
2 fatty acids form an ester bond with the 1st and 2nd hydroxyl groups of glycerol
The 3rd hydroxyl group forms an ester with phosphoric acid to form another phosphoester bond with an amino alcohol
Polar head: ionized amino alcohol and phosphate portion
Strongly attracted to water
Nonpolar tails: only soluble in lipids
Most abundant lipid
Main structural component of cell membranes
Sphingomyelin
No glycerol – sphingosine instead
Forms the membranous myelin sheath that surrounds nerve cells
Steroids: Cholesterol, Bile Salts, and Hormones
Cholesterol
Most abundant steroid
Hydroxyl group
Double carbon bonds
Meats, milk, eggs
Broken down by the liver
Cell membranes, brain and nerve tissue, vitamins
Clogged arteries – atherosclerosis
Bile Salts: aid in protein digestion
Synthesized in the liver from cholesterol
Stored in the gallbladder
Polar and nonpolar regions
Help absorb cholesterol
Large amounts of cholesterol can form gallstones
Steroid Hormones
Chemical messengers
Produced from cholesterol
Male: testosterone/androsterone
Female: estrogen/progesterone
Adrenal corticosteroids
Anabolic steroids: not made naturally
Increase muscle mass
Cell Membrane
Diffusion: higher concentration to lower concentration
Facilitated transport: protein channels to increase the rate of diffusion
Active transport: against the concentration gradient – requires energy
Separates internal cellular content from the external environment
Lipid bilayer: 2 rows of phospholipids
Fluid mosaic model
Proteins and cholesterol are embedded in the lipid bilayer of phospholipids
The bilayer forms a membrane barrier with polar heads at the membrane surface and the nonpolar tails away from the water
Proteins
Polymers are made from 20 different amino acids
Characteristics vary based on the amino acid arrangement of proteins
Function as enzymes: regulate biological reactions
Peptide bond
Amide bond
-COO- group of one amino acid reacts with the
-NH3 group of the next amino acid
Peptide: the linking of two or more amino acids by peptide bonds
Polypeptide: a chain of 50 or more amino acids
Has biological activity
Globular proteins
Compact spherical shape
Water-soluble
Synthesis, transport, metabolism
Fibrous proteins
Alpha keratins – hair, nails
Beta keratins – feathers
Primary structure: the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
Secondary structure: local folding patterns like alpha-helix and beta-sheets
Tertiary structure: overall 3D shape of a single polypeptide chain
Quaternary structure: arrangement of multiple polypeptide subunits within a protein complex
Enzymes
Proteins
Biological catalysts
Active sites that bond to a substrate
Catalyze chemical reactions in cells
Catalyze a specific reaction for a specific substrate
Increase the rate of reactions, which requires lower energy