Origins of Political Power: Exploring Social Contract Philosophies
Theories of the Social Contract
The theories of contract are schools of thought using a hypothetical contract to explain the origin and legitimacy of state political power. This social contract arises from a supposed state of nature prior to social order. In a free state, autonomous individuals agree to organize a society. They decide the ruler’s functions and powers. Power’s legitimacy comes from the community members’ recognition of the contract. The contract is hypothetical; the state of nature or contract establishment isn’t a specific historical moment. These theories don’t explain the origin of the state and power but justify a particular political organization. These doctrines appeared in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries with Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau. Although their theories differ, they all start from the modern anthropocentric ideal and critique the legitimacy of medieval power structures. Their political doctrines share these starting points:
- Affirmation of individual autonomy.
- Criticism of the theocratic conception of power prevalent in medieval Europe.
- Establishment of rights based on rational human activity.
Rousseau (General Will)
Rousseau believes humans in a state of nature live a quiet and simple life with abundant goods and harmony. Problems arise in societies promoting private property, the enemy of human kindness. Clashes occur in groups where envy and greed determine relationships, enriching some and impoverishing others. Despotic relations arise from these inequalities. To stop this, Rousseau proposes a social contract based on a general will defending the community’s interests above any particular interest. Rousseau’s social contract implies no waiver since the individual has no prior claim to society’s institution. Laws passed by the assembly embodying the popular will become natural laws: fair, universal, and inalienable. For Rousseau, democracy best achieves the social contract’s objectives.
Isegoria and Isonomia
Isegoria is a Greek concept expressing every citizen’s right to be heard in the agora, a principle of ideal democracy. Isonomia is a Greek concept expressing the equality of all persons before the law. Every individual possesses certain rights and obligations as a citizen and community member, a principle of ideal democracy.
Hobbes (Homo Homini Lupus)
Hobbes believed man is a wolf to man because, in his nature, he is selfish, leads a poor life, and has equal opportunities to win a confrontation. While some may be stronger, human intelligence overrides these differences. This ongoing struggle for equality and resources leads to a perpetual war against each other. Human life becomes solitary, short, and dominated by fear. Humans, endowed with reason, see the need to overcome this existence. Thus arises the need for a contract where all agree to submit to a monarch. From this union and submission, civil society emerges, formed by the state’s members and institutions. Hobbes represents the state as a great Leviathan (a biblical monster), whose function is to punish sinners. Through civil society and a supreme power (Leviathan), individuals surrender their rights to be protected. This protection comes from laws and the sovereign’s enforcement. However, the monarch has absolute power but must ensure a peaceful life for citizens. If the monarch fails, citizens are free to leave and seek protection elsewhere.
Locke (The Liberal Contract)
Locke believed humans in the state of nature are free and absolute masters of their lives and property. Natural law obliges everyone to respect others’ lives, health, and property. However, individuals violating this law necessitate a contract to ensure compliance. This decision originates society. The contract first establishes conditions governing the union between individuals: civil society, where all must respect others’ liberty and property. Second, it establishes the characteristics and obligations of the state. Against Hobbes, Locke argues that state power is not absolute; rulers must also respect the law. He advocates a separation of powers:
The Legislature
Its function is to dictate the law. Its strength and legitimacy come from civil society members, who freely choose their legislators.
The Executive Branch
Must respect and ensure the correct execution of the laws enacted by the legislature.
The Federal Power
It deals with the defense of the State and external relations.