Ortega y Gasset: Life, History, and Philosophy
The 20th Century and Ortega’s Thought
We are in the twentieth century. Ortega y Gasset highlights the arrival of the masses, a century marked by two world wars, the atomic bomb, and unprecedented scientific and technological advancements: radio, television, computers, and virtual reality. This new century began with World War I, the Soviet Revolution, the rise of fascism, the Second Republic in Spain, the Spanish Civil War, World War II, and the Franco dictatorship. Ortega was deeply engaged with the issues of his time, striving for Spain’s modernization. He analyzed societal issues comprehensively, recognizing their impact on individuals and society. A supporter of the Republic, he was exiled by the Civil War. He defended aristocratic values (influenced by Nietzsche), emphasizing the elite in contrast to the masses. He returned to Spain after the war but did not receive the recognition he deserved.
In the socio-cultural sphere, the century began with Einstein’s theory of relativity, dynamic physics, and quantum physics, building upon the non-Euclidean geometries of the previous century. These advancements revolutionized science, creating an unprecedented breakthrough. In Spain, following the loss of its last colonies (Cuba and the Philippines), the pessimism of the Generation of ’98 gave way to the subsequent reclamation and the Generation of ’27. Noteworthy is Ortega’s founding of the Revista de Occidente, and the intellectual life of the Ateneo de Madrid and the Residencia de Estudiantes.
Philosophically, Ortega’s foundation lies in neo-Kantianism, although he moved towards existentialism, historicism, phenomenology, and particularly vitalism. In the twentieth century, analytic philosophy and neopositivism marked the first half of the century.
Ortega’s Philosophical Influences
Ortega’s philosophy is rooted in neo-Kantianism, initially influenced by Kant and Hegel’s idealism. However, he shifted towards life as fundamental reality instead of the Idea. Kant’s impact on subsequent philosophy, particularly his Critique of Pure Reason and Critique of Practical Reason, is undeniable, though it collided with romanticism and irrationalism. Nietzsche’s concept of life as reality, perspectivism, and pluralism also influenced Ortega. He is indebted to historicism, emphasizing historical vital reason—that man has no nature, but history—and pointing towards existentialism: to exist is to become. He incorporated the intentionality of phenomenology. Ortega aimed for originality, but his philosophical training, from ancient Greek philosophy’s focus on the cosmos to modern thought, is evident. We situate Ortega within the Hispanic world, particularly the School of Madrid, which produced excellent students. Maria Zambrano is a notable example, representing a significant figure in Spanish and Latin American philosophy. Ortega remains a landmark, his philosophy significantly impacting the Spanish language. His commitment to clarity of thought, opposition to mediocrity, and the connection between thought and social practice continue to resonate today.
What is Philosophy? and Ortega’s Fundamental Principles
Ortega’s What is Philosophy? presents the fundamental principles of his thought. All philosophers have pondered the origin and nature of reality. Ortega addresses this question, identifying two historical positions: realism, affirming a world independent of us (characteristic of ancient philosophy), and idealism, denying this independent world and emphasizing the thinking self (modern philosophy).
Ortega critiques both positions, proposing that reality is neither the world’s existence nor the self’s existence, but the coexistence of the self with the world. This coexistence is what Ortega calls life. Therefore, life is fundamental reality. A world without a thinking self is unknowable, and a self without a world to think is meaningless. Reality is the radical coexistence of the thinking self and the world thought by it. Ortega aligns with the life-affirming philosophy of Nietzsche.
This fundamental reality—life—is the coexistence of self and world, engaged in activity. We are concerned with what is in the world, and the world is something that concerns us. Life involves awareness of our existence. Life is also free decision, a project within circumstances, encompassing past, present, and future—it is history. Without life, there is nothing. Life is the most undeniable fact; even thought is secondary to life, contrary to Descartes’s “I think, therefore I am.” It is more accurate to say “I am alive, therefore I think.”
Life’s characteristics are its circumstances. Circumstance is essential to life. I am myself and my circumstance, but I did not create my circumstance. To live is to live with circumstance. Reality is not objective from the outset but perspectival. Life is multiple; reality has multiple meanings, is relative, and is presented from different viewpoints. Each perspective is one among many. Every human being lives in the real world, in their own possible world. The only way to approach the reality of the world is by multiplying viewpoints and acknowledging irreducible multiplicity.
Theory of Knowledge
Philosophy is constitutionally necessary for intellect and life, and life is lived, experienced. The most basic task of understanding is philosophizing. Humans have traditionally used reason to know a static reality, to know objects. But this approach is insufficient for understanding human beings, who are not objects but living, dynamic beings constantly changing. They elude reason like water through a sieve. Ortega proposes a vital historical reason capable of grasping human life as history. Man has no nature but history. Everyone has a life plan; we consider our future to understand our past and present. If we embrace our life plan, our being is fulfilled. If we reject it, our existence remains empty. Understanding our history and future allows us to understand our present.