Ortega y Gasset’s Perspectivism and Ratio-Vitalism
Ortega y Gasset’s The Theme of Our Time
Transition from Perspectivism to Ratio-Vitalism
This chapter discusses José Ortega y Gasset’s The Theme of Our Time, marking the transition from his perspectivism to ratio-vitalism. This shift aimed to transcend rationalism and address the intellectual climate of his era.
Historical Context
Spain’s Decline
The loss of Spain’s American colonies and the Philippines in 1898 profoundly impacted the national consciousness. Intellectuals, including the Generation of ’98, grappled with Spain’s decline. Ortega believed the solution lay in adapting European thought, representing science and progress, to revitalize Spain’s outdated ideals. This required an intellectual elite to address the key concerns of the early 20th century: nationalism, the Moroccan War, and social issues.
Political Instability
Under Alfonso XIII’s reign, Primo de Rivera’s coup failed to resolve these problems. The subsequent Republic’s progressive reforms triggered resistance from the military and conservative right. Ortega, exiled to Argentina, returned to Spain in 1945.
European Scene
Europe faced significant events: the 1917 Russian Revolution, World War I, and World War II.
Philosophical Context
German Philosophy’s Influence
Ortega’s thinking was primarily influenced by contemporary German philosophy. Initially trained in neo-Kantianism, he critiqued both idealism and realism, exploring other European schools of thought.
Vitalism and Historicism
European philosophy was divided between vitalism and historicism. Vitalism posited life as the fundamental principle of reality, beyond pure reason. Ortega, however, rejected being labeled a vitalist, as he didn’t reduce human life solely to biology. Historicism, originating in Germany, emphasized history’s crucial role in human existence. Ortega adopted this view, stating that “man is not, but is made.” These movements led him to develop the concepts of “vital reason” and “historical reason.”
Existentialism
Existentialism, emphasizing the human being as a project in constant creation, also influenced Ortega. He asserted that living is being in the world.
Cultural Context
Krausism and the Free Institution of Education
Ortega’s work coincided with significant cultural shifts in Spain. Krausism, with its Free Institution of Education, fostered creative and free learning, influencing figures like Buñuel, García Lorca, and Dalí. Ortega sought further intellectual stimulation in Europe.
The Spanish Civil War
The Spanish Civil War tragically interrupted Ortega’s philosophical work. Until 1936, European philosophy flourished, with figures like María Zambrano, Gaos, Zubiri, and Bulk. Afterward, Orteganism gained more recognition outside Spain.
Literary Landscape
Spain’s literary scene thrived during this period, with the Generation of ’27, including Machado, García Lorca, Alberti, and Cernuda, succeeding the Generation of ’98.
Ortega’s Influence and Legacy
Impact on Spanish Thought
Ortega y Gasset is arguably the most influential Spanish philosopher, impacting both his disciples, like María Zambrano, and the vocabulary and style of Spanish philosophical writing. His work also influenced German philosophy, anticipating some aspects of Heidegger’s thought and sharing certain viewpoints, though distancing himself at times. He also anticipated existentialist ideas, declaring the irreducible openness of the human being to the world: “We are free to necessity.” Beyond philosophy, Ortega’s social and political thought influenced Spain. Academic philosophy continued in the directions set by the Civil War’s victors. The regime and its intellectual supporters attempted to discredit figures like Ortega. These attacks diminished after the 1950s. For many university students, reading Ortega was a decisive step towards personal independence, becoming socially acceptable. His more radical texts became guides for emancipation. Ortega was key in promoting a shared project between Spain and Europe.
Critique of Descartes
Ortega criticized Descartes, a pillar of modern subjectivism and idealism, for his focus on certainty. Descartes’ doubt led him to the foundational principle of “I think, therefore I am.” Ortega, initially trained in rationalism, critiqued this position for its abstraction and lack of engagement with reality. He argued that while we cannot know things beyond our thoughts, we cannot claim independence from them. We encounter ourselves and things simultaneously. Thus, the radical data of the universe is not thought, but life—the interconnectedness of self, world, and things. Idealism, according to Ortega, goes against life. The discovery of this radical interconnectedness surpasses both idealism and realism.
Ortega also differed from Descartes in their concept of reason. Descartes’ “pure reason” is a subject separate from the world. Ortega proposed “vital reason” and “historical reason.” This vital reason corresponds to a perspectival truth. Truth is not singular but multiple, each perspective being true and irreplaceable in constructing a comprehensive truth. For Descartes, truth is absolute and eternal, discovered through reason.