Ortega y Gasset’s Philosophy: A Critical Reflection of Western Thought
Ortega y Gasset (1883-1955)
José Ortega y Gasset developed his philosophy during the first half of the twentieth century. This period in Europe was marked by political tension between democracy and totalitarianism, leading to events such as the two World Wars, the Russian Revolution, the rise of fascism, and decolonization in Africa and Asia. Spain experienced the loss of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, resulting in a national crisis in 1898. Ortega lived through the Bourbon Restoration, the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera, the Second Republic (where he participated in the Constituent Cortes), the Civil War, and the early years of Franco’s dictatorship.
Socio-Economic and Cultural Context
Economically, the early twentieth century witnessed the crisis of capitalism with the Great Depression of 1929 and the rise of labor movements influenced by Marxism. Spain, primarily an agricultural nation, lagged behind the rest of Europe in development. The cultural landscape underwent significant transformations with advancements in medicine (like penicillin), urbanization, transportation, and the emergence of radio, television, newspapers, and cinema. Progress was made in all scientific fields. Physics saw the development of the theory of relativity and quantum physics, while medicine benefited from the use of penicillin. Santiago Ramón y Cajal revolutionized our understanding of the nervous system by revealing the structure of nerve tissue and neurons.
Ortega’s generation in Spain grappled with the loss of the colonial empire and the need for cultural and political rebuilding. This led intellectuals to seek solutions by looking to Europe, embracing science and progress. Krausism, an educational and cultural renewal movement, gained prominence in Spain. Literary movements like the Generation of ’98 (Machado and Unamuno), the Generation of ’14 (Pérez de Ayala, Ramón Gómez de la Serna, and Ortega), and the Generation of ’27 (García Lorca, Alberti, etc.) flourished. In painting, artists like Picasso, Dalí, and Miró achieved international recognition.
Philosophical Influences
Several philosophical trends shaped Ortega’s thought:
- Focus on social problems: This included Marxism and the Frankfurt School.
- Analysis of language and scientific methodology: This encompassed neo-positivism and analytic philosophy.
- Phenomenology, existentialism, historicism, and vitalism: These currents had the most significant influence on Ortega.
Existentialism emphasized the idea of humans as beings who create themselves over time through continuous choices. Vitalism viewed the essence of reality not solely in reason but in life itself. Historicism stressed the importance of history (both individual and collective) as a defining element of human existence (Ortega famously stated that “man is not only nature but history“).
From these movements emerged two key concepts in Ortega’s philosophy: vital reason and historical reason.
Ortega and Plato: A Critical Comparison
Ortega’s philosophy can be contrasted with that of Plato, the Greek philosopher of the 4th century BC, who represents the rationalism that Ortega criticized for its detachment from life. Plato’s distinction between two worlds—the sensible world (images and physical objects) as apparent and the intelligible world (mathematical entities and Ideas) as the only true reality—represents a departure from the immediacy of life. For Plato, true reality is immaterial, unchanging, unique, and eternal, a perspective that devalues the change and development inherent in life itself. Ortega considered this ontological dualism a fundamental error, arguing that there is only one reality, conceived as life and history, experienced within specific circumstances.
Epistemology
Plato proposed two ways of knowing:
- Opinion or knowledge derived from the senses, which includes conjecture (knowledge of shadows) and belief (knowledge of physical objects).
- Knowledge or science, which represents knowledge of the intelligible world and involves discursive reasoning that allows us to grasp mathematical entities and pure intelligence. Through dialectic, we can contemplate the Ideas.
Ortega rejected and criticized the epistemological dualism of Platonic rationalism, arguing that it neglects the vital dimension of human experience. He proposed the theory of knowledge as perspectivism, believing that Platonic pure reason should be replaced by vital and historical reason.
Anthropology
Plato’s anthropology presents human beings as composed of body and soul. The body is seen as a prison for the soul, whose natural place is the world of Ideas. Plato distinguishes three parts of the soul: the appetitive part (representing desires and appetites), the spirited part (linked to noble passions), and the rational part (responsible for knowledge and immortal). For Ortega, a human being is a synthesis of life (instinct, experience) and reason (history). We cannot disregard the natural and historical dimensions of human existence, as Plato’s thought arguably does.
Ethics and Politics
Plato advocated for moral intellectualism (only those who possess knowledge can act virtuously) and proposed three cardinal virtues: moderation, courage, and wisdom. Justice, as a virtue, represents the harmony between these three parts of the soul. In his ideal society, Plato envisioned three groups: producers, guardians, and rulers. He favored an aristocratic government where philosophers, as those who possess knowledge of the Good, should be the rulers.
Ortega considered these approaches rigid and closed, the product of pure reason detached from the richness of life and its diverse perspectives. However, Ortega also spoke of different groups within society (generations) and believed that an intellectual elite or minority should guide the masses and lead Spain out of its backwardness (in this sense, there are echoes of Plato’s philosopher-ruler).
Impact and Legacy
Ortega’s impact is primarily reflected in journalism and contemporary Latin American and Spanish philosophy, particularly the School of Madrid (María Zambrano, Julián Marías, etc.). His influence can also be seen in philosophical movements that focus on the critique of Western reason, such as the Frankfurt School.
Ortega’s philosophy offers a critical reflection on all previous philosophy, promoting a more tolerant attitude towards the pursuit of truth and acknowledging the validity of diverse perspectives. This approach can help us address contemporary problems of discrimination and intolerance, encouraging a more respectful attitude towards other cultures and ways of thinking by recognizing the legitimacy of different points of view.