Blockchain Fundamentals: Definition, Architecture, and Operation
1. Defining Blockchain and Architecture
What is Blockchain?
Blockchain is a distributed and shared ledger where data is stored in blocks. Each block is linked to the previous one, and data can be updated only with the agreement of all nodes. Once stored, data is very difficult to change, and no central authority is required.
Architecture of Blockchain
- Internet Layer: Provides basic communication between nodes.
- Peer-to-Peer Network: All nodes connect directly without a central server.
- Transactions: Records
Understanding Cyberspace Architecture and Cybercrime Threats
Cyberspace refers to the virtual environment created by computers, the internet, digital networks, and communication technologies. It is not a physical space but a digital world where users interact through devices such as computers, smartphones, servers, routers, and cloud systems. Activities like browsing websites, sending emails, online banking, social media communication, and digital payments all take place in cyberspace. It connects millions of people globally and enables fast information sharing,
Read MoreAdvanced Mathematics and Statistics Reference
Probability Density Functions and Distributions
A function f(x) is a valid probability density function (PDF) if:
- f(x) ≥ 0 for all values of x.
- ∫-∞∞ f(x)dx = 1.
Expectation and Variance
- Expected value (mean): E[X] = ∫-∞∞ x ⋅ f(x)dx
- Expected value of X2: E[X2] = ∫-∞∞ x2 ⋅ f(x)dx
- Variance: Var(X) = E[X2] – (E[X])2
Special Probability Models
- Uniform Distribution: f(x) = 1/(b-a), for a ≤ x ≤ b.
- Uniform Distribution Expected Value: (a + b)/2
- Exponential Distribution: f(x) = λe-λx,
Fundamentals of Energy Systems: Definitions and Structure
1. System Definition and Differentiation
What is a system? A system is a set of distinguished and active elements (objects, operations, processes) with existing relations between those elements. It is separated from its surroundings, yet it is under the impact of the surroundings and has an impact on the surroundings. It is organized and intentionally arranged for the realization of a defined purpose within its surrounding environment.
System vs. Set: A system implies active elements, defined relations,
Read MoreMastering English Irregular Verbs and Simple Past Tense
Essential English Irregular Verbs
Infinitive – Past Simple (Spanish Translation)
- Be – was (Ser, estar)
- Beat – beat (Golpear, derrotar)
- Become – became (Llegar a ser, convertirse)
- Begin – began (Empezar)
- Bend – bent (Doblarse)
- Bet – bet (Apostar)
- Bite – bit (Morder)
- Bleed – bled (Sangrar)
- Blow – blew (Soplar, explotar)
- Break – broke (Romper)
- Bring – brought (Traer)
- Build – built (Construir)
- Burn – burnt/burned (Quemar)
- Buy – bought (Comprar)
- Catch – caught (Coger, atrapar)
- Choose – chose (Elegir)
- Come – came (Venir)
Essential Business and Management Vocabulary Definitions
Essential Business and Workplace Terminology
- Administrative
- Connected with organizing the work of a business.
- Agenda
- A list of business items to be discussed at a meeting.
- Appliances
- Machines or devices you use at home to do jobs like cooking or cleaning. They are often electrical.
- Appointment
- A formal arrangement to meet or visit somebody at a particular time, especially for a reason connected with their work.
- Brands
- Types of product made by a particular company.
- Career Development
- How people manage their
Chiang Kai-shek, the CCP, and the Road to the Long March (1927–1937)
The Shanghai Massacres and Extermination Campaigns
- The **NRA** (National Revolutionary Army) liberated Shanghai from the warlords.
- Chiang Kai-shek feared a general strike and a **CCP** (Chinese Communist Party) takeover.
- Chiang was prepared, attacked, and killed anyone suspected of being a Communist.
- The **White Terror** resulted in many casualties.
Consequences of the Massacres
- The campaign failed to crush the Communists.
- A split occurred within the **KMT** (Kuomintang), and Chiang was temporarily expelled
Core Principles of Indian and Modern Psychology
Self, Identity, and Self-Concept in Indian Psychology
Indian Psychology views the self as spiritual, holistic, and continuous. The self is not limited to personality or ego but is rooted in consciousness.
Core Concepts of Self
- Atman: The true self; eternal, unchanging, pure consciousness beyond body and mind.
- Jiva: The individual self; Atman associated with the body, mind, desires, and karma.
- Purusha: Witness consciousness; the observer of experiences, not the doer.
Development of Self in Indian Traditions
- Identification
American History Foundations: Constitutional Era to Manifest Destiny (1787–1850)
Key Historical Questions and Answers (1787–1850)
Constitutional Era and Early Republic
- Primary Cause of Shays’ Rebellion: Farmers struggling because of debts.
- Anti-Federalists: The group that favored a weak or restricted central government.
- Constitutional Compromise on Slave Trade: Kept it open for twenty years.
- Hamilton’s Financial Plan (Exception): Did *not* include dropping import duties to encourage free trade.
- Interpretation of the French Revolution: Most Americans celebrated the spread of republican
Fundamental Concepts and Production Methods of Global Energy Sources
∆Q=mc∆T,E=hν=hc/λ,For wind(p=1/2xroxAv*3),For Hyrdro(p=ηroVgh),solar energy= irradiance x area x time.
(1Btu=1055J,1 year=3.15×10*7s,1kWh=3.6×10*6J,c(w)
=4184Jkg-1C-1,1ev=1.6×10*-19J,h=6.625×10*-34Js)
What are the main characteristic of fossil fuels?
Ans: Fossil fuels stored a large amount of chemical energy which is converted into
various other forms of energy by burning them.
How does wind power generate electricity?
Ans: – Electricity is generated by using a wind turbine.
Wind turbine consists