Sociolinguistics: Core Concepts & Language Dynamics

  1. Which field does not belong to sociolinguistics?

    • (A) Ethnography of communication
    • (B) Sociology of language
    • (C) Social psychology of language
    • (D) Interactional sociolinguistics
    • (E) Formal linguistics
  2. Sociolinguistics is:

    • (A) A single linguistic discipline
    • (B) Multidisciplinary
  3. The concept of ‘covert prestige’ is associated with:

    • (A) The standard variety
    • (B) Non-standard varieties
  4. Social network studies have shown that vernacular maintenance is found in:

    • (A) Loose-knit networks
    • (B) Close-knit networks
    • (C) Both
  5. The

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Immune System Essentials: Barriers, Responses, and Key Concepts

Immune System Fundamentals

Natural Resistance

  • Non-Specific Species Resistance:
    1. Absence of specific tissue or receptors.
    2. Second host or target site.
    3. Absence of toxins.
  • Individual Natural Resistance:
    1. Nutrition
    2. Fever
    3. Age
    4. Genetic factors
    5. Stress

Physical Barriers

  • Skin: Keratinized cell layer, scaling, dryness, normal flora, fats, washing.
  • Respiratory Tract: Normal flora, microvilli, mucous surfaces.
  • Gastrointestinal Tract: Stomach pH, peristalsis, secretions, normal flora.
  • Urogenital Tract: Urine flow, normal flora.
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Molecular Biology Essentials: DNA, RNA, and Gene Function

Fundamentals of Molecular Biology

RNA Nucleotide Components

An RNA nucleotide consists of three main parts:

  • A ribose molecule
  • A phosphate group
  • A nitrogenous base

The Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

Information is transferred from DNA to RNA to protein.

Gene Expression and Regulation

Impact of Promoter Sequence Mutations

A mutation in the promoter sequence of a gene might prevent RNA polymerase from binding. As a result, the gene would not be transcribed.

DNA Preparation for RNA Synthesis

Before RNA polymerase

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Key Periods in World History: Conflicts, Revolutions, and Transformations

The Peloponnesian War and the Modern World

The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC)

  • Ancient Greek conflict between Athens and Sparta for dominance.
  • Undecided until Persian intervention aided Sparta.
  • Resulted in Spartan hegemony under Lysander.

Concept of Total War

  • Coined by Erich Ludendorff, referencing Thucydides.
  • Indicates war involving the complete mobilization and targeting of civilian and military resources.

Arnold Toynbee’s Analysis of Sparta

  • Sparta as an “arrested civilization,” meaning it stagnated culturally
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Property Classification in Civil Law: Real Rights & Asset Types

Introduction to Property Classification and Real Rights

The justification of real rights examines various aspects of related assets. This document outlines their treatment and definition within legal frameworks.

I. Treatment in Book II

II. Definition of Real Right in Article 577

Understanding Things, Goods, and Articles

The purpose of law, specifically concerning real rights, rests upon any provision (thing or fact). Discussion often centers on the semantic meaning of “thing” as the object of real rights.

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Galician Language: History, Evolution, and Current Status

History of the Galician Language in the 20th Century

Before the Civil War

This period saw two opposing processes regarding the legacy of the previous century:

  • The upper classes began to abandon Galician, a trend later followed by the lower classes. As people moved from rural areas to cities, and due to emigration, the Galician-speaking population decreased significantly.
  • Efforts were made for Galician language recovery, not only for literary use but also for social activities. This led to the creation
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Ferdinand VII’s Reign: Absolutism, Liberalism, and Crisis in 19th Century Spain

The Restoration of Absolutism in Spain (1814-1820)

After the Treaty of Valençay, which restored his throne, Ferdinand VII returned to Spain amidst popular enthusiasm, hailed as “the Desired One.” He was met with cries of “Down with the Constitution of Cádiz, Long Live Absolutism!” from absolutist deputies in Cádiz. In May 1814, General Elío had the Manifesto of the Persians published. Following this, Ferdinand VII, in his first act, suspended the Constitution of 1812 and other Gaditano decrees,

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Evolutionary Theories: From Fixism to Darwin’s Natural Selection

The Long Road to Evolutionary Thought

Early ideas about life on Earth often diverged significantly from modern evolutionary theory. Key among these was Fixism, the belief that all species were created as they appear today and have remained unchanged since their creation. This view was supported by several prevailing notions:

  • The Anthropocentric View of the World: Despite Copernicus removing Earth from the center of the universe, the anthropocentric view persisted, suggesting that everything surrounding
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CNS Pharmacology: Barbiturates, Antipsychotics, and Epilepsy

Barbiturates: Potent CNS Depressants

Barbiturates are potent central nervous system (CNS) depressants. They are medicines that slow down brain or CNS activity. They can be very strong and risky if not used carefully. They are used to treat anxiety, sleep problems, and seizures. Common barbiturates include:

  1. Barbital
  2. Phenobarbital
  3. Mephobarbital
  4. Amobarbital
  5. Butabarbital
  6. Pentobarbital
  7. Secobarbital

Mechanism of Action of Barbiturates

  • Barbiturates work by increasing the effect of GABA, a calming brain chemical,
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Spanish Medieval Literature: La Celestina & Book of Good Love

The Social World of La Celestina

In La Celestina, the transformation of medieval society is palpable. This can be seen:

  • On the one hand, in the establishment of new relationships between different social strata. The nobility has been displaced by the gentry; it is no longer lineage, inherited from our ancestors, but wealth that determines social status. In addition, the old feelings of respect and mutual fidelity between masters and servants has been replaced by purely economic relationships.
  • On the
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