Lactic Acid Bacteria: Biochemistry, Pathways, and Food Preservation
Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB)
Gram-positive, non-motile, and non-spore forming bacteria that are strict fermenters.
They are catalase and oxidase negative and cannot synthesize cytochromes.
LAB can be either homofermentative or heterofermentative. The type of fermentation is determined by the enzymes produced by the organism.
Homofermentative: Converts glucose into two lactic acid molecules, with 85–95% of the glucose carbon ending up as lactate. This pathway uses the glycolytic (Embden-Meyerhof) pathway.
Fundamental Concepts in Ancient Greek Philosophy
Arche: The First Principle
Arche (or archai) is a concept in ancient Greek philosophy signifying the beginning of the world or the first principle of all things. It can also mean substance or matter—i.e., that which does not need anything else to exist, just the same.
The philosophers of Miletus agreed in regarding substances as derived from a single, natural principle. For Thales, this was water; for Anaximenes, air; and for Heraclitus, fire.
Physis: Nature and Essence
To the Greeks, the term physis
Read MoreCore Principles of English Functional Grammar
Chapter 1: Language and Meaning
Unit 1: Core Concepts of Language and Meaning
The core idea is that language conveys meaning through grammar, context, and use. Functional grammar focuses on how form expresses function.
Key Definitions
- Language
- A structured system for human communication.
- Functional Grammar
- Explains how forms (words, clauses) express functions (meanings, actions).
- Communicative Act / Speech Act
- An action performed by saying something (e.g., stating, asking, commanding, promising).
- Proposition
- The
Intellectual and Religious Shifts in 18th Century America
The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening
John Locke and the Foundations of Knowledge
An important thinker was John Locke, who wrote the Essay Concerning Human Understanding. His philosophy challenged traditional views:
- It is incorrect to think that colors are innate in a creature; you are not born knowing colors, you actually learn colors. Therefore, knowledge is not innate.
- Knowledge comes from experience (from life, experiments, and science).
- We can change society for the better by pooling our experiences.
Philosophical Foundations of Morality and Action
Foundations of Ethics
Definition of Ethics:
- Ethics is the study of our own behavior to help us become better people.
- It is a branch of philosophy that focuses on understanding human actions from a moral point of view.
- The purpose of ethics is to reflect on what we should do to improve ourselves and society.
Why is Ethics Important?
- All actions have consequences—they can help or harm ourselves and others.
- By acting ethically, we become better persons and contribute to the common good.
Key Point: “Ethics
Read MoreThe Rise of Liberalism: European Political Transformation (17th–19th C)
English Parliamentarism: Origins and Evolution
English Parliamentarism was the most progressive system of the 16th century, important because of its influence on enlightened political ideas. Its roots can be traced back to the Anglo-Saxon ‘Witenagamot’ and the advisory council of the Norman Kings, the ‘Curia Regis’. That Curia evolved to become the English Parliament, where the dominant groups, the Aristocracy and Clergy, intervened beside the King in the government of the nation. The first key point
Read MoreEuropean History: Revolutions, Empires, and Social Change
The Ancien Régime: State-Based Society
The social structure of the Ancien Régime was divided into three distinct estates:
First Estate: Nobility
The nobility held the highest status. They were wealthy, powerful, and typically lived in castles or large estates. They received income and privileges but were exempt from paying taxes.
Second Estate: Clergy
The clergy were also privileged. They often lived in cities and wielded significant power due to the populace’s religious belief and the Church’s influence.
Key Concepts of the Cold War and Decolonization History
Understanding Post-War Global History
The Brezhnev Doctrine Defined
The Brezhnev Doctrine was a policy established by the Soviet Union in 1968. It asserted that the USSR could use military force to prevent any communist country from deviating from communism. This justification was notably used to send troops to Czechoslovakia during the Prague Spring. The primary goal was to maintain absolute control over Eastern Europe.
The Cuban Missile Crisis and Its Main Outcome
In 1962, the United States discovered
Read MoreCore Concepts in Criminology, Race, and Legal Philosophy
Foundational Concepts in Law and Criminology
1. Comparing Natural Law and Legal Positivism
Compare the Natural Law paradigm to the Legal Positivist paradigm. Briefly list some strengths and weaknesses of each perspective. Where does the ‘Letter from a Birmingham Jail’ fit among these two perspectives?
Natural Law Paradigm:
- Core Idea: A law is only valid if it aligns with higher principles (like justice, morality, or universal human rights).
- Strengths: Provides a basis for challenging unjust laws
Analyzing Style, Career Aspirations, and Technology’s Impact
Comparing Marta and Rocio: Style and Personality
Hello, my name is Alba. My two friends are Marta and Rocio.
Marta’s Style Profile
- Marta’s style is a little snobby and casual.
- She often wears jeans and smart shoes, always favoring expensive brands.
- At parties, she is usually very confident.
- When I met her at night school (third level), she wore blue trousers, a white skirt, and boots.
Rocio’s Style Profile
- Rocio’s style is sporty. She dresses very well; for example, she sometimes buys a dress.
- When I met