US Government Structure and Political Accountability Mechanisms
Unit 2: American Government Institutions
I. The Judiciary
Constitutional Basis and Federal Courts
Article III establishes the Supreme Court and grants Congress power to create lower federal (inferior) courts.
Federal judges hold their offices “during good behavior” (lifetime tenure).
Structure of the Federal Judicial System
It is a three-tiered system:
- District Courts (trial courts)
- Courts of Appeals (appellate courts)
- Supreme Court (apex)
State and Local Courts
They handle the vast majority of legal cases
Key Concepts in Administrative and Political Theory
Foundational Theories of Public Administration
Garcia-Pelayo on Welfare State Administration
Garcia-Pelayo understood that the welfare state administration should be its executive arm. If the welfare state aims to ensure the economic and social status quo, this must be achieved through the administration.
Furthermore, the administration must provide the maximum possible welfare, addressing individual needs that cannot be met by the individual alone.
It should also establish and maintain the law through
Read MoreNetwork Fundamentals: Protocols, Streaming, and Reliable Data Transfer
Core Networking Concepts
Circuit Switching Fundamentals
In circuit switching, first maximize the smallest link, then proceed to maximize the subsequent links.
Total Network Delay Components
Total delay is calculated as the sum of:
- Processing/Nodal Delay
- Queue Delay
- Transmission Delay (Trans)
- Propagation Delay (Prop)
Bandwidth-Delay Product (BDP)
The Bandwidth-Delay Product (BDP) represents how much data fits within the “pipe” (where delay is the length and bandwidth is the width). To find the number of pipes,
Read MoreEU Internal Market Freedoms: Capital, Services, and Goods Regulation
1. Historical Development of Free Movement of Capital
Free movement of capital developed later and more cautiously than the other economic freedoms because the original Treaty rules were vague and ambiguous. Unlike goods, workers, establishment, and services, capital was not granted immediate liberalization or direct effect. During the 1960s and 1970s, the Court of Justice recognized direct effect for the other freedoms, but capital movements were excluded. Liberalization was meant to happen progressively
Read MoreOrganizational Environment, Culture & Leadership in Global Business
Organizational Environment
Internal Environment – Inside the Company
All internal elements are interconnected and influence how efficiently the company works. These are factors the company can directly control:
- Mission: Defines the company’s purpose and direction.
- Management and Culture: Leadership style, values, communication, and work atmosphere.
- Structure: How the company is organized (departments, hierarchy, coordination).
- Resources: Human, financial, physical, and informational resources.
- Systems
Everyday Lies: How Deception Erodes Trust and Integrity
Lying as a Daily Habit
Lying as a Daily Habit: A Critical Analysis of The Ways We Lie. Lying is such a common practice that it often becomes normalized in everyday life. In her essay The Ways We Lie (1992), Stephanie Ericsson argues that lying is not an isolated act but rather a spectrum of strategies we use to protect ourselves, manipulate others, or avoid conflict. Although many lies are justified as necessary or harmless, every lie carries a cost: it erodes trust, distorts communication, and weakens
Read MoreMaterials and Stores Management: Inventory Control & Logistics
Materials Management
1. Meaning of Materials Management
Materials management is the process of planning, purchasing, storing, and controlling materials in an organization to ensure their availability at the right time, in the right quantity, quality, and at the lowest cost. It covers the entire flow of materials from suppliers to the production department and finally to distribution. The main purpose of materials management is to maintain a smooth and uninterrupted production process while avoiding
Read MoreInventory & Logistics Glossary: Essential Supply Chain Terms
A
ABC Analysis
Assigns items to groups (A, B, C) based on value and importance.
Example: A = laptops, B = keyboards, C = mouse pads.
Accumulation
Receiving goods from multiple sources.
Example: A DC receives shipments from 10 factories.
Activity-Based Costing (ABC)
Assigns cost based on activities, not departments.
Example: Shipping-heavy customers show higher cost-to-serve.
Allocation
Matching inventory to customer orders.
Example: DC allocates 50 units to a customer order.
Anticipatory Stock
Inventory held
Read MoreMarxist Theory: Value, Surplus, and Capital Accumulation
Chapter 2: The Qualitative-Value Problem
1. Commodity – The Starting Point
A commodity = anything made to sell, not for personal use.
Marx studies exchange as a social process, not just a trade of things.
2. Two Sides of a Commodity
- Use Value → Usefulness (satisfies wants).
- Exchange Value → How much it trades for.
Marx focuses on exchange value because it shows social relations in capitalism.
3. Value Comes from Labor
The value of a commodity comes from labor used to produce it.
Labor has two sides:
Read Moreਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਸ਼ਬਦ ਜੋੜ ਅਤੇ ਵਿਆਕਰਨ ਦੇ ਮਹੱਤਵਪੂਰਨ ਨਿਯਮ
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਸ਼ਬਦ ਜੋੜਾਂ ਦੇ ਮੁੱਖ ਨਿਯਮ
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ ਵਿੱਚ ਸ਼ਬਦਾਂ ਨੂੰ ਸਹੀ ਢੰਗ ਨਾਲ ਲਿਖਣ ਲਈ ਕੁਝ ਮਹੱਤਵਪੂਰਨ ਨਿਯਮ ਹਨ, ਜਿਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਨੂੰ ਅਪਣਾ ਕੇ ਅਸੀਂ ਲਿਖਤ ਵਿੱਚ ਇਕਸਾਰਤਾ ਲਿਆ ਸਕਦੇ ਹਾਂ। ਮੁੱਖ ਤੌਰ ‘ਤੇ ਇਹ ਨਿਯਮ ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਯੂਨੀਵਰਸਿਟੀ,
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