US Government Structure and Political Accountability Mechanisms

Unit 2: American Government Institutions

I. The Judiciary

  • Constitutional Basis and Federal Courts

    • Article III establishes the Supreme Court and grants Congress power to create lower federal (inferior) courts.

    • Federal judges hold their offices “during good behavior” (lifetime tenure).

  • Structure of the Federal Judicial System

    It is a three-tiered system:

    1. District Courts (trial courts)
    2. Courts of Appeals (appellate courts)
    3. Supreme Court (apex)

Image of the structure of the federal judicial system

  • State and Local Courts

    They handle the vast majority of legal cases

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Key Concepts in Administrative and Political Theory

Foundational Theories of Public Administration

Garcia-Pelayo on Welfare State Administration

Garcia-Pelayo understood that the welfare state administration should be its executive arm. If the welfare state aims to ensure the economic and social status quo, this must be achieved through the administration.

Furthermore, the administration must provide the maximum possible welfare, addressing individual needs that cannot be met by the individual alone.

It should also establish and maintain the law through

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Network Fundamentals: Protocols, Streaming, and Reliable Data Transfer

Core Networking Concepts

Circuit Switching Fundamentals

In circuit switching, first maximize the smallest link, then proceed to maximize the subsequent links.

Total Network Delay Components

Total delay is calculated as the sum of:

  • Processing/Nodal Delay
  • Queue Delay
  • Transmission Delay (Trans)
  • Propagation Delay (Prop)

Bandwidth-Delay Product (BDP)

The Bandwidth-Delay Product (BDP) represents how much data fits within the “pipe” (where delay is the length and bandwidth is the width). To find the number of pipes,

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EU Internal Market Freedoms: Capital, Services, and Goods Regulation

1. Historical Development of Free Movement of Capital

Free movement of capital developed later and more cautiously than the other economic freedoms because the original Treaty rules were vague and ambiguous. Unlike goods, workers, establishment, and services, capital was not granted immediate liberalization or direct effect. During the 1960s and 1970s, the Court of Justice recognized direct effect for the other freedoms, but capital movements were excluded. Liberalization was meant to happen progressively

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Organizational Environment, Culture & Leadership in Global Business

Organizational Environment

Internal Environment – Inside the Company

All internal elements are interconnected and influence how efficiently the company works. These are factors the company can directly control:

  • Mission: Defines the company’s purpose and direction.
  • Management and Culture: Leadership style, values, communication, and work atmosphere.
  • Structure: How the company is organized (departments, hierarchy, coordination).
  • Resources: Human, financial, physical, and informational resources.
  • Systems
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Everyday Lies: How Deception Erodes Trust and Integrity

Lying as a Daily Habit

Lying as a Daily Habit: A Critical Analysis of The Ways We Lie. Lying is such a common practice that it often becomes normalized in everyday life. In her essay The Ways We Lie (1992), Stephanie Ericsson argues that lying is not an isolated act but rather a spectrum of strategies we use to protect ourselves, manipulate others, or avoid conflict. Although many lies are justified as necessary or harmless, every lie carries a cost: it erodes trust, distorts communication, and weakens

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Materials and Stores Management: Inventory Control & Logistics

Materials Management

1. Meaning of Materials Management

Materials management is the process of planning, purchasing, storing, and controlling materials in an organization to ensure their availability at the right time, in the right quantity, quality, and at the lowest cost. It covers the entire flow of materials from suppliers to the production department and finally to distribution. The main purpose of materials management is to maintain a smooth and uninterrupted production process while avoiding

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Inventory & Logistics Glossary: Essential Supply Chain Terms

A

ABC Analysis

Assigns items to groups (A, B, C) based on value and importance.
Example: A = laptops, B = keyboards, C = mouse pads.

Accumulation

Receiving goods from multiple sources.
Example: A DC receives shipments from 10 factories.

Activity-Based Costing (ABC)

Assigns cost based on activities, not departments.
Example: Shipping-heavy customers show higher cost-to-serve.

Allocation

Matching inventory to customer orders.
Example: DC allocates 50 units to a customer order.

Anticipatory Stock

Inventory held

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Marxist Theory: Value, Surplus, and Capital Accumulation

Chapter 2: The Qualitative-Value Problem

1. Commodity – The Starting Point

A commodity = anything made to sell, not for personal use.

Marx studies exchange as a social process, not just a trade of things.

2. Two Sides of a Commodity

  • Use Value → Usefulness (satisfies wants).
  • Exchange Value → How much it trades for.

Marx focuses on exchange value because it shows social relations in capitalism.

3. Value Comes from Labor

The value of a commodity comes from labor used to produce it.

Labor has two sides:

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ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਸ਼ਬਦ ਜੋੜ ਅਤੇ ਵਿਆਕਰਨ ਦੇ ਮਹੱਤਵਪੂਰਨ ਨਿਯਮ

ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਸ਼ਬਦ ਜੋੜਾਂ ਦੇ ਮੁੱਖ ਨਿਯਮ

ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਭਾਸ਼ਾ ਵਿੱਚ ਸ਼ਬਦਾਂ ਨੂੰ ਸਹੀ ਢੰਗ ਨਾਲ ਲਿਖਣ ਲਈ ਕੁਝ ਮਹੱਤਵਪੂਰਨ ਨਿਯਮ ਹਨ, ਜਿਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਨੂੰ ਅਪਣਾ ਕੇ ਅਸੀਂ ਲਿਖਤ ਵਿੱਚ ਇਕਸਾਰਤਾ ਲਿਆ ਸਕਦੇ ਹਾਂ। ਮੁੱਖ ਤੌਰ ‘ਤੇ ਇਹ ਨਿਯਮ ਪੰਜਾਬੀ ਯੂਨੀਵਰਸਿਟੀ,

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