Microeconomics: Costs, Market Structures, and Game Theory
Chapter 12 — Cost of Production
Cost Definitions and Key Formulas
Total Cost (TC) = Fixed Cost (FC) + Variable Cost (VC).
Marginal Cost (MC) = ΔTC / ΔQ or ΔVC / ΔQ.
Average Fixed Cost (AFC) = Fixed cost / Quantity.
Average Variable Cost (AVC) = Variable cost / Quantity.
Average Total Cost (ATC) = Total cost / Quantity = AFC + AVC.
Profit Concepts
Accounting profit = Total revenue − Explicit costs.
Economic profit = Total revenue − Explicit costs − Implicit costs. (Economic profit = Accounting
Read MoreSampling, Correlation, and Multivariate Methods for Research
Sampling: Population, Sample, Census
Population, sample, census: The population of interest is the entire group researchers want to generalize to. A sample is the smaller group that is actually observed or measured. A census collects data from every single member of the population. Population = who you care about. Sample = who you study. Census = everyone in the population.
Representative vs. Biased Samples
Representative vs. biased samples: A representative sample (unbiased) gives every member of
Read MoreEssential Human Resource Management Concepts and Functions
1. Human Resource Management (HRM) – Introduction
Human Resource Management (HRM) is the strategic approach to managing people effectively in an organization to achieve organizational goals and improve employee performance.
Definition
HRM is concerned with recruitment, development, motivation, and maintenance of human resources in an organization.
Objectives of HRM
- To ensure optimum utilization of human resources
- To improve employee efficiency and productivity
- To maintain healthy industrial relations
- To
Digital Payments, Cybersecurity and E‑Governance in India
Digital Financial Tools and Applications
💳 Digital financial tools are electronic methods and platforms that allow users to manage, transfer, and utilize money digitally for various transactions and services. They enhance convenience, speed, and security in the financial ecosystem.
Digital Security and Identity Tools
These mechanisms ensure the safety and proper identification of parties during a digital transaction.
- OTP (One Time Password): A unique, automatically generated numeric or alphanumeric
Cell Biology Timeline and Eukaryotic Cell Structure
Timeline of Key Cell Biology Discoveries
- 1590 – Hans and Zacharias Janssen built the first microscope.
- 1665 – Robert Hooke named the cell.
- 1670 – Anton van Leeuwenhoek designed a simple microscope.
- 1674 – van Leeuwenhoek discovered animalcules (bacteria and protozoa).
- 1838 – Schleiden started developing cell theory in plants.
- 1839 – Theodor Schwann extended cell theory to all animals.
- 1858 – Rudolf Virchow proved that all cells come from the division of pre-existing cells.
- 1888 – Santiago
Literary Analysis of Savolta Case and Santiago Nasar
Themes in The Truth about the Savolta Case
Within the book, there are several secondary issues reflected. For example, the freedom of man speaks of the extent to which man is free and is not conditioned by the social environment in which we live, showing a clear difference in behavior between the upper class and the proletariat of Barcelona, placing the protagonist in between the two.
It also speaks of love of different types. For example, the relationship between Lepprince and Maria Coral is solely
Read MoreTransliteration and Name Conversion Rules for English
Transliteration and Name Conversion Rules
Lab reference table
| TOPIC | RULE / PRINCIPLE | EXAMPLE |
|---|---|---|
| LAB 10 – PT vs. TC | ||
| Practical Transcription (PT) | Transfers the sounds of a foreign name; consistent, rule-based; uses standardized letter correspondences. | RL Заболотный → EL Zabolotny |
| Traditional Correspondence (TC) | Uses historical, non-regular spelling rooted in cultural tradition, often unrelated to phonetics. | RL Иоанн → EL John |
| Where TC is common | Anthroponyms, figures of history, politics, culture, |
Comparative Politics: UK and US Constitutional Features
- 1. Comparative Method: The comparative method involves studying political systems by contrasting their institutions, processes, and functions to understand similarities, differences, and advance political theory.
Features of UK Constitution
The UK Constitution is unwritten, flexible, and founded on conventions, statutes, and judicial decisions. Parliamentary sovereignty is its primary characteristic.
Features of USA Constitution
The US Constitution is written, rigid, and federal. It establishes the
Read MoreData Types and Statistical Analysis Concepts Explained
Q1. Data Types: Categorical vs. Numerical
[8–9 Marks]
Answer:
Data comprises raw facts and figures collected for analysis and decision-making. Based on nature, data is mainly classified into Categorical data and Numerical data.
1) Categorical Data (Qualitative)
Categorical data represents qualities or categories and cannot be measured numerically.
Types:
Nominal: No natural order
Example: Gender (Male/Female), Blood GroupOrdinal: Ordered categories
Example: Grades (A, B, C), Satisfaction level
Example:
Read MoreEnglish Grammar: Active to Passive Sentence Structure
Active to Passive Voice Conversions (36 Examples)
Review these examples demonstrating how to transform active sentences into the passive voice across different tenses. The structure follows: Active Sentence → Passive Sentence.
- I clean my room every day. → My room is cleaned by me every day.
- Tom bought a nice present yesterday. → A nice present was bought by Tom yesterday.
- Ann will sing a beautiful song. → A beautiful song will be sung by Ann.
- Ben repaired my computer yesterday. → My computer