19th Century Art: From Romanticism to Post-Impressionism
Romanticism and Realism
Throughout the 19th century, the art world experienced major shifts, transitioning from Romanticism to Realism, and culminating in Impressionism.
Romanticism emerged as a response to Neo-classicism, emphasizing feeling and intuition over reason. Painting became a primary vehicle for artistic expression. It’s considered the first avant-garde movement, breaking with classical tradition by addressing contemporary issues.
Key features include the dominance of bright colors over
Read MoreChilean Constitutional Reforms: 1833-1925
1. The First Reform of the 1833 Constitution
During the government of José Joaquín Pérez, the reform of August 8, 1871, prohibited the immediate re-election of the president, establishing a five-year term. This significantly constrained presidential power, limiting long-term plans and projects.
2. The Reform of October 24, 1874: State Council and Conservative Commission
The State Council’s structure was altered, shifting it from an advisory body to one with greater control over presidential authority.
Read MoreEnvironmental Challenges and Policies: Global, EU, and Spain Focus
1. Key Environmental Issues
1.1 Air Pollution
Emissions from industries, power stations, vehicle traffic, and domestic heating contribute to air pollution. This leads to:
- Global warming due to increased CO2 and other greenhouse gas emissions, manifesting as droughts, floods, and glacial melt.
- Ozone layer thinning from CFCs, reducing protection against UV rays and increasing skin cancer and cataract risks.
- Acid rain from sulfur and nitrogen oxides, altering vegetation, water, and soil.
- Urban air pollution
Understanding Iberian Peninsula’s Geography: Aridity, Basins, Lakes, and Geology
Aridity and Climate Sectors
As aridity increases, there are four sectors:
- Northeast Sector (Peninsular Catalan): Wetter, with a higher risk of frost due to cold continental air from the north.
- Valencian-Balearic: Less influence of oceanic air masses, temperatures increase southward, and precipitation decreases.
- Southeastern Peninsular Mediterranean: Semiarid, with the minimum precipitation on the peninsula, experiencing year-round drought. Air masses are influenced by the Alboran Sea. The south coast
Spanish Civil War: Causes, Conflicts, and Consequences
Spanish Civil War
1. Antecedents: The Coup d’État
The main organizer was General Mola, assigned to Pamplona by the Popular Front, away from Madrid, where the military conspiracy was allegedly being hatched. The military plan consisted of a statement of all potential military garrisons, especially in Madrid and Barcelona. General Franco was awarded command of the Army of Africa. The conspiracy had the support of right-wing political forces and European countries (Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy). It
Read MoreKant’s Philosophy: Key Concepts and Political Thought
Copernican Revolution
Philosophical revolution proposed by Kant to understand synthetic a priori knowledge, leading to transcendental idealism. Kant explains this shift in the design of knowledge with an analogy to the Copernican revolution in astronomy. Copernicus realized that celestial motion could not be understood with Earth at the center. Similarly, Kant argued that to understand knowledge, we must shift from assuming the knower is passive to understanding the knower as active, shaping reality
Read MoreEvolution of Family Structures: From Kinship to Modern Forms
What is a Family?
A family is a group of people directly linked by kinship ties. Adult members are responsible for the care of children. Kinship ties are established through marriage or by linking genealogical lines of consanguine relatives (mothers, fathers, brothers, sisters, sons, etc.).
Marriage and Family Bonds
Marriage is a sexual union between two adults, socially recognized and approved. When two people marry, they become parents, but marriage also binds a broader group of people. Parents,
Read MoreFrench Revolution: Causes, Stages, and Napoleon’s Impact
The French Revolution (1789)
The French Revolution was a pivotal event in 18th-century Europe, dismantling the old regime and replacing absolute monarchy with parliamentarianism or a republic, led by the rising bourgeoisie. It abolished noble and clerical privileges and freed the peasantry from bondage.
Causes of the Revolution
Ideological
Enlightenment thinkers challenged the traditional system, advocating for modernization and human happiness. Voltaire opposed the Church’s curtailment of individual
Read MoreUnderstanding Global Climate Change: Causes, Effects, and Evidence
United Nations: Changing Face of Global Climate
In 1980, scientists began to realize the increase in Earth’s surface temperature, likely caused by human activity. In 1988, the UN created the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The IPCC predicts average temperatures to rise between 1.5°C and 5.8°C. Global warming causes climate change, abnormal functioning of ecosystems, changes in land use, and biodiversity loss.
Climate Change Indicators
- Retreating glaciers: Mountain glaciers in the
Exploring Knowledge Systems: Myth, Magic, Science, and Philosophy
1. Mythical Knowledge
Myths are narratives explaining origins, social order, and community destiny. Key features:
- Anthropomorphic
- Animist
- Indeterministic
- Comprehensive
2. Magical Knowledge
- Domain: Socially privileged caste (witches or shamans).
- Ritual: Rigorous and efficient ritual procedures.
- Private: Not public or intersubjective.
- Dogmatic: Results are unquestionable.
3. Technical Knowledge
- Practical: Based on trial and error.
- Specialist: Originates from the social division of labor.
- Public: Rules and procedures