From Francoism to Democracy: Spain’s Constitutional Journey
Spain’s Transition to Democracy (1975-1978)
Franco died on November 20, 1975. This marked the end of a dictatorship lasting almost 40 years and initiated a period of transition to democracy, the first chapter of which was the proclamation of Juan Carlos I as King of Spain.
The prime minister was Carlos Arias, a Francoist who frustrated democratizing expectations. In early 1976, the situation was critical: Spain was experiencing a severe economic crisis, followed by a strong wave of strikes.
The King
Read MoreCommercial Registry: Functions and Legal Principles
Functions of the Territorial Commercial Registry
Besides its advertising function, the Territorial Commercial Registry is assigned other key functions:
- Legalization of company books.
- Appointment of independent experts for the valuation of in-kind contributions in public limited companies (SA) or limited partnerships by shares, and for cases of company mergers or divisions. It is also responsible for appointing auditors.
- Deposit and publication of annual accounts for limited liability companies and corporate
Fundamentals of Electricity: Quantities, Circuits, and Measurement
1 – Basic Electrical Quantities
The fundamental quantities that characterize electrical power are voltage, current, resistance, and power.
Voltage
The energy with which a generator is able to push electrons through a circuit is called voltage or electromotive force (EMF).
Voltage is also known as potential difference (PD) and is measured in volts (V).
Electric Current
Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge through a circuit per unit time.
Electric current, also called intensity, is measured
Read MoreNineteenth-Century Literature: Trends, Novels, and Key Authors
Nineteenth-Century Literary Trends
After the Romantic movement, literature divided into two main currents: one aimed to accurately portray society, while the other resisted adherence to reality due to perceived artistic limitations.
The Realistic Movement
The Realistic movement began with authors like Stendhal, Balzac, and Flaubert. This realism later evolved into Russian spiritualist realism and Zola’s Naturalism. Writers were seen as doctors treating a sick society, experimenting with unpleasant
Read MoreLiterary Summaries: Classic Tales & Plays Explained
The Tale of Melon City: A Folk Tale Summary
The Tale of Melon City runs like a folk tale. The city is called Melon City because its ruler is a melon. There is a curious tale about it. Once, a fair and easygoing king ruled over a state. He got an arch built across the thoroughfare. As he passed under the low arch, it struck his head, and he lost his crown. He thought it a disgrace and ordered the chief of builders to be hanged. The chief laid the blame on the workmen. The workmen were surprised and
Read MoreSouthern Spanish Dialects and ‘Los Santos Inocentes’ Analysis
Critique of ‘Los Santos Inocentes’ by Miguel Delibes
The novel expresses concern over the world, social problems, and the abuse by the nobility. It combines traditional realism with modernism. The novel is a synthesis of Delibes’ art. In this work, a trait is evident that often goes unnoticed in other novels by Delibes: it conceals an enormous individual and social violence. This violence, according to Delibes, is not merely his personal obsession, but rather the REALITY he describes. The novel admirably
Read MoreSpanish Literary Movements and Verbal Periphrases
Spanish Literary Movements and Authors
Narrative of Exile: Spanish Pilgrimage
Many novelists went into exile, some having already achieved literary prestige, while others were slightly younger and less known. Excluded from literary canons and unable to publish their works, they were hardly known and influential writers in the weak domestic literary scene, especially after 1960.
Exile left its footprint on Rosa Chacel (1898-1994). Her novels moved away from realism, focusing on the analysis of emotions.
Read MoreRecombinant DNA Technology: Insulin, Somatropin, and Protein Engineering
Insulin
Insulin is a classic example of a naturally occurring protein produced by recombinant technology. Human insulin was the first recombinant protein commercially produced for therapeutic use. Before the availability of recombinant insulin, diabetic patients relied on insulin purified from the pancreases of pigs and cows, which occasionally resulted in serious immune reactions. Recombinant human insulin has dramatically improved the therapy for diabetes. Human insulin is expressed as a precursor
Read MoreSpain’s Late 19th Century: Crisis, Modernization, and Social Change
The Regency of María Cristina: Political System in Crisis (1885-1902)
After Alfonso XII’s death in 1885, his widow María Cristina served as regent until their son, Alfonso XIII, came of age. During this period, several crises significantly weakened the political system:
Challenges to Political Representation
Even after universal male suffrage was introduced in 1890, electoral fraud persisted. This created a growing divide between “official Spain” (the manipulated parliamentary system) and “real
Read MoreHydraulic Valve Systems: Pressure, Flow, and Check Valve Operations
Pressure Control Valves in Hydraulic Systems
Function of Pressure Control Valves
The control of hydraulic power in hydraulic systems is primarily achieved through the use of control valves. The specific control requirements are dictated by the function of the system. Parameters of the mechanical power delivered to the load are managed hydraulically by controlling the pressure, flow rate, or the direction of flow.
Classification of Hydraulic Pressure Valves
Pressure valves used in hydraulic power transmission
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