The Foundations of Empiricism and the Limits of Human Knowledge
Empiricism: A Philosophical Tradition Opposed to Rationalism
Empiricism is a philosophical tradition opposed to rationalism, which often emphasizes the certainty of mathematics.
Modern science emphasized observation, action, and experimentation. The need to rely on observation and experimentation, especially when moving beyond pre-scientific explanations, finds its justification in the main thesis of empiricism:
- All our knowledge about facts is based on perception or sense experience.
The ultimate source
Read MoreEssential Definitions in Physics, Optics, and Cosmology
Fundamental Concepts in Physics
Sound and Wave Propagation
Speed of Sound (Sound Velocity)
The sound velocity is the speed of propagation of sound waves, a type of longitudinal mechanical wave produced by pressure variations of the medium. These pressure variations (captured by the human ear) contribute to the brain’s perception of sound. Sound does not travel through a vacuum because there are no atoms through which the waves can pass. (330 km / s)
Sound
The sensation produced in the ear by the vibration
Read MoreThe Origins of the Cold War: Division, Conflict, and Crisis
The Maximum Tension: Early Cold War Conflicts
The Economic Division of Europe
The Marshall Plan
The U.S. government devised a strategy to revive the economies of European countries that were favorable, which was named the Marshall Plan. The Marshall Plan included almost all Western European countries except Spain, as the Franco dictatorship was considered anti-democratic. The United States scheme had two objectives:
- To improve living standards in Europe and thus ward off revolutionary movements.
- To maintain
Essential Metalworking Techniques and Tool Usage
Fundamentals of Metals and Metallurgy
Metal Properties and States
Solid elements are metals at room temperature, except mercury, which is liquid.
Metallurgy is the set of processes and techniques involved in the production of metals and alloys.
Key mechanical properties include:
- Hardness
- Elasticity
- Tenacity
- Malleability
- Ductility
- Mechanical Strength
Classification of Metals
- Ferrous metals: Are those containing iron.
- Non-ferrous metals: Do not contain iron.
Basic Metalworking Operations and Tools
Tracing and Layout
Read MoreEssential Facts of US Government and Political Systems
Key Political Systems and Government Types
- Democracy: A system where citizens exercise power by voting, typically through elected representatives.
- Republic: A government in which the country is considered a “public matter” and officials are elected by the people.
- Monarchy: A system ruled by a king, queen, or emperor, often with power inherited by family lineage.
- Constitutional Monarchy: A monarchy limited by a constitution, where elected bodies share or limit the monarch’s powers.
- Dictatorship: A government
Horizontal Gene Transfer and Major Biogeochemical Cycles
Mechanisms of Asexual Reproduction and Gene Transfer
Reproduction is asexual. Haploid organisms possess mechanisms that facilitate parasexual genetic transference (Horizontal Gene Transfer).
Transformation
Transformation occurs when a recipient cell captures free DNA from the surrounding medium, often through a complex protein present in the cell wall. This DNA originates from another cell. The transformed cell incorporates these new genes. Cells capable of undergoing transformation are considered
Read MoreBioenergetics: Free Energy, ATP Hydrolysis, and Metabolic Pathways
Cellular Bioenergetics and Thermodynamics
Physical systems of the universe are governed by the laws of thermodynamics, tending always towards greater disorder (entropy).
The cell utilizes energy from its environment to perform vital functions, releasing equivalent amounts as heat or other forms of energy that contribute to the increased disorder of the universe.
Free Energy and the Laws of Thermodynamics
Free Energy: It is a form of energy capable of doing useful work under constant conditions of
Read MoreByzantine Mosaics: Iconography, Imperial Power, and the Golden Ages
Characteristics of Byzantine Iconography
The figures show a certain rigidity and monotony, but are very expressive in their symbolism, displaying an obvious disregard for the laws of nature and space. They are elongated and suggest a certain dehumanization.
The Iconographic Program (Hermeneia)
The new iconographic types symbolically suit a preset program (the Hermeneia), assigned to different parts of the temple:
- The Pantocrator (Christ in Majesty blessing) in the dome.
- The Tetramorph (four evangelists)
Political Power, Legitimacy, and Democratic Systems
The Concept of Political Power
Power is defined as the ability to be obeyed by those involved in social relationships.
Max Weber, an important sociologist, believed that in a social relationship, power is what allows an individual to fulfill their own will. According to Weber, power is having capacity.
Sources of Political Legitimacy
Political legitimacy, or the justification for power, can stem from various sources:
- Force
- Persuasion
- Tradition
- Charisma
- Money
- Skills
- Knowledge
- Rationality
Weber’s Three Types of
Read MoreEnglish Verb Tense Practice and Irregular Verb Forms
Section 1: Mixed Tenses Practice
- It isn’t raining
- was waiting / arrived
- I am getting
- do you do
- was the car doing
- Phoned / didn’t phone
- Were thinking / decided
- Is happening
- Doesn’t rain
- Rang / were having
- went / was studying / didn’t want / didn’t stay
- told / didn’t believe / thought / was joking
Section 2: Tense Forms
- didn’t go
- is wearing
- has grown
- haven’t decided
- is being
- wasn’t reading
- didn’t have
- is beginning
- Found
- wasn’t
- you have been
- I have been doing
- Did she go
- I have been playing
- Do you come
- Since I saw her
- for 20 years