Paleolithic to Visigoths: Society and Conquest in the Iberian Peninsula
Society in the Paleolithic Era
Hunters in the Paleolithic era faced varying weather conditions, including many colder seasons. Their economy was based on hunting and gathering, leading to a nomadic lifestyle. They lived near rivers and in caves. Social differences existed, with groups often joining forces for hunting. A technological revolution occurred, with tools becoming increasingly useful for more specific functions.
Cantabrian Cave Paintings
The Altamira cave provides an example of Cantabrian cave paintings. These paintings often depict herbivorous animals and human figures. Key features include the representation of animals, the use of vibrant colors, and the utilization of cave relief.
Mesolithic and Neolithic Periods
Climate change marked the transition to the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. The Neolithic Revolution, characterized by the development of agriculture, led to the establishment of many towns. The economy shifted from hunting and gathering to agriculture and animal domestication. This change allowed for a greater food supply and a higher population, but it also required more effort. Sedentary lifestyles emerged, accompanied by a social division of labor, with war leaders, farmers, and other roles. Differences in wealth and power became apparent. Technological changes included the polishing of stone and the development of ceramics. The Neolithic period did not begin simultaneously across the peninsula, starting earlier in the southern Levant.
Levantine Paintings
Levantine paintings, created during the Mesolithic period, are found outdoors due to improved climatic conditions. Common themes include hunting, fighting, and dancing. These paintings typically use fewer colors and feature schematic shapes.
Roman Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula
First Punic War
Rome’s expansion across the Mediterranean led to conflict with Carthage in the First Punic War (264 BCE). Rome occupied several Carthaginian possessions, including Sicily, which became former Roman provinces. As a result, the Carthaginians expanded north, founding Leuke Akra and Carthage. However, Roman ambition continued to grow, leading to further territorial expansion and renewed conflict.
Stages of Conquest
The Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula (218 BCE) occurred in five stages:
- The Second Punic War and the initial occupation of the peninsula
- Conquest of new territories (197 BCE)
- Celtiberian-Lusitanian Wars
- Incorporation of new territories and civil wars in Rome at the end of the Republic (133 BCE)
- Asturian-Cantabrian Wars, culminating in the complete Roman conquest of the peninsula
General Characteristics of the Roman Economy
The Roman economy relied heavily on slave labor, with Roman military conquests providing a steady supply of slaves. This subject population was essential to the economy. Rome also had a colonial-type economy, with Hispania exporting commodities and importing other products. Hispania’s production included wheat, wine, oil, and minerals such as gold, silver, and copper.
Social Structure
Roman society was divided into free men, slaves, and freedmen (an intermediate group). The social hierarchy consisted of:
- Citizens: The dominant, privileged minority who held political, military, financial, and religious offices. They were divided into three orders:
- Senatorial: Members of the Roman Senate who owned land
- Equestrian: Individuals with wealth lower than the senatorial order, responsible for finance
- Decurional: Members of municipal senates
- Non-Citizens: Individuals with a certain status but without political privileges. They could be poor or rich and had certain benefits.
- Freedmen (Non-Citizens): Individuals without political rights but with civil rights, such as the right to marry, own property, and inherit.
- Slaves: Individuals without civil or political rights, considered the property of their owners. They could be born into slavery or become slaves through other means.
Visigoths: Social and Economic Evolution
The Visigothic period saw economic trends such as ruralization, landlordism, and a closed economy. The custom of the oath of loyalty to a chief warrior became increasingly common, resembling feudalism. Kings surrounded themselves with faithful warriors in their palaces, rewarding them with land for their service. This practice led to the emergence of a territorial nobility that was increasingly independent of the king, even holding political authority. Bucellarii were noble landowners who offered protection in exchange for obedience.
Control of the Iberian Peninsula
The Visigoths initially lacked control over three zones of the peninsula:
- Northeast: Suevi
- North: Basques
- South: Byzantine Empire
However, they eventually regained these territories, expelling the Byzantines, subduing the Basques, and defeating the Suebi. This resulted in an independent Visigothic state.
Relationship with the Church and Nobility
The Visigoths recognized Catholicism as the official religion and had the support of the Church, which acted according to its interests. Both the Church and the nobility attempted to prevent the monarchy from seizing power.