Paradigms & Models of Teaching and Learning: A Comprehensive Guide

Posted on Nov 4, 2024 in Psychology and Sociology

Item 2. – PARADIGM AS-M MODELS OF TEACHING-DIDÁCTICOS LEARNING

2.1 .- Paradigms and Models of Teaching and Learning

Concept of Paradigm

The “March substantive theory in which science develops and commonly accepted as a means of investigation.”

Concept Model

The Model is a simplified presentation of reality, which helps us to explain, teach, improve or reconstruct.

2.1.1 .- Major Paradigms that Influence the Teaching-Learning Process

Behavioral Paradigm

Some Characteristic Features:

• Basic metaphor: the machine.
• Research paradigm process – product.
• Teacher model: competence.
• Program operational objectives.
• The required curriculum is closed.
• Apply behavior modification techniques.
• Only the results are evaluated.
• Teaching and learning focus on the product.
• S. R; SOR

The behavioral paradigm occurs early in the twentieth century and its principal representatives are Watson and Pavlov, Thorndike and later development of this key paradigm corresponds to Skinner.

Authors:

• Pavlov
• Watson
• Thorndike
• Skinner

Pavlov. Classical Conditioning.

Pavlov is especially known for formulating the law of reflection subject, that developed between 1890 and 1900 after observing that the saliva of dogs used in experiments could be the result of psychic activity. He made the famous experiment of a bell sounding one just before giving food to a dog, reaching the conclusion that, when amber dog had, began to salivate just hearing the sound of the hood.

In the 1930s came to signify to announce the beginning whereby the function of human language is a result chain of conditioned reflexes that contain words.

Watson. Classical Conditioning.

Founder of Behaviorism and Behavior. It was based on the theory of Pavlov. He also studied animal learning.

It was one of the most important American psychologists of the twentieth century known for founding the behaviorist school of psychology.

It became very famous for taking 20 children to argue that any, and applying behavior management techniques, could be created any type of people (righteous, robber, thief, etc.) that desired. Naturally, Watson, finally admitting that this end was far from what could actually achieve, because psychologists had before him attempted unsuccessfully for decades.

However, Watson developed behaviorism, which today constitutes one of the most important psychological schools and is used in many highly effective therapies.

With his behaviorism, Watson emphasized the external behavior of the people and their relations in given situations, rather than internal mental state of people. In its view, the analysis of behavior and relationships were the only objective method to get insight into human actions.

All stimulus would elicit a response. Response will be the same if a repeat situation and if it preceding the relevant training. (S. …. R).

Learning would associate stimuli with responses.

Is satisfied that the child can get what you want: to make it a saint or a demon. It all depends on external conditions, the influence, the environment …

Watson, like all behavior, is an optimistic view of education.

Thorndike. Instrumental Conditioning

It was a behaviorist U.S.. His work studying the behavior of animals led to the theory of connectionism.

His most important contribution is the formulation of the so-called law of effect, from studies performed with cats in boxes, they should issue escape.

Law of Effect

Under this law, the answers are followed (contiguity) of reinforcing consequences be associated with the stimulation and have greater probability of occurrence when the stimulus appears. On the contrary, if the response to the stimulus is followed by aversive consequences, the association will be weaker, so that the probability of occurrence will be less.

This law is based many of the theories put forward by Skinner.

His experiments and animal Skinner (e.g., the cat’s hungry) will lead to conclusions very valuable for learning:

• Before a given situation eliminate wrong answers and set increasingly correct response. It’s called “law of effect”: You learn quickly what is a positive outcome for our body, pleasant and favorable result. Here lies the importance of reward for effort in the studies. Skinner will give all importance to the positive effort. The punishment, he says, as I have to teach me behave. Call this behavior operant conditioning.
• Also discovered the “law of frequency”: The connection between stimulus and response increases with practice. The cat was right more quickly in spring to the little door of communication open with food, according to the number of times you had done.
• He also studied the “law of readiness”: how do we learn best is motivated when given the proper maturity.

Skinner. Operant Conditioning.

Skinner was mainly responsible for the development of the philosophy of radical behaviorism and the development of Applied Behavioral Analysis, a branch of psychology which aims to work unit for animals and humans based on principles of learning. He conducted the experiment through strengthening showed positive and negative operant conditioning, technique modification behavior that developed in contrast to classical conditioning.

Skinner did not advocate the use of punishment. His research suggested that punishment was a very inefficient technique to control the behavior, the term generally used for a small behavior change, but resulting most often avoid the subject stimulating situation before the behavior followed by punishment.

The positive and negative reinforcement (which is often confused with punishment) proves to be more effective in getting changes in behavior.

In the most advanced methods of the behavioral paradigm are given the following notes:

• Optimism about education and learning.
• Setting specific goals.
• Content structuring learning units.
• Organization of the units to facilitate their language development and transfer of this learning.
• Development of screening tests for each of the units. Tests to apply to complete the examination of each unit.
• Recovery through other alternative approaches for students not exceeding the test properly.

The teacher’s role is more creative. “Planner, diagnostician and counselor.” Tutoring and guidance on these methods acquire utmost importance.

2.1.2 .- Cognitive Paradigm

Some Characteristic Features:

• Computer (information processing).
• Research paradigm: mediational: teacher-centered or student.
• Teacher MODEL: reflective (Thoughts of the teacher).
• Programming or final objectives.
• Curriculum MODEL: open and flexible.
• Cognition and directs behavior.
• Evaluation of processes and outcomes.
• Teaching – Learning: focus on the process.

Authors:

• Piaget
• Bruner
• Aussubel
• Vygotsky

Piaget. Constructivism.

Piaget “has a biological conception of intelligence, which considered as a case of adaptation of organisms to the environment. This adaptive function is the same in all psychic development, but the forms it assumes along the evolution are different, stages allowing precise distinction in the intellectual development.

Individual development is divided into four stages:

• Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years): The child’s behavior is mainly motor, no internal representation of external events, or think through concepts.
• Preoperational stage (2-7 years): This is the stage of thought and of language graduates their ability to think symbolically mimics behavior objects, role playing, drawing, mental images and the development of spoken language. At this stage we can find phase of symbolic or preconceptual thought, until about four years. (He plays with the stone like a car). And the stage of intuitive thinking from four to seven or eight years. (Confuses quantity with height).
• Logical Stage of Concrete Operations (7-11 years to 12 years): The processes become logical reasoning and can be applied to specific problems or real. Socially, the child now becomes a truly social being and at this stage appear logical seriation schemes, mental system sets and ranks concepts of causation, space, time and speed.
• Formal Logical thinking stage (12-16 years): At this stage the adolescent achieves observed specific knowledge abstraction that allow you to use the inductive and deductive logical reasoning. Develops and manages idealistic feelings personality training, there is a further development of moral concepts.

Its genetic psychology of knowledge, built methodically builds on the experimental demonstration of the existence of successive cognitive structures, defining of stages and levels of psychogenesis.

• Operations in nature “reversible.” Habits, however, are irreversible and rigidly work.
• The operation is “associative composition, i.e., thought is free for detours to reach the same point. The habit does not offer different ways for action.
• Operations are “whole systems”, while habits are behaviors isolated. For this reason, intellectual habits tend to forget quite often limited periods of time. The operations are not so easily forgotten because it are “related” to each other.

Bruner. Learning by Discovery.

This method, more personalized and creative values personal initiative of the student and recognizes his “ability to learn.” Is required to student feels properly reasoned.

Watch this approach requires a real investigation process. From a problem, we launched a hypothesis and select the activities that can confirm the hypothesis. The problems must be tailored to the student’s ability. It shall, according to age and training, from practical problems more complex and abstract.

One feature of this method is that the teacher did not explain its students what they can learn on their own. The teacher’s role will be more facilitator of learning and follow an inductive procedure.

The student learns not only data, obtained from a person, but also learns procedures that facilitate the resolution of problems and the use of such data.

This development favors the retention and transfer of learning.

Aussubel. Meaningful Learning.

Aussubel shown clearly influenced by the theories of Herbart, Dewey, Piaget and Gestalt.

• Herbart: the assimilation of new content to the already known.
• Piaget: in all matters relating to formal logical operations.

Aussubel, given the limitations of ‘learning by discovery’ is in favor of “learning meaningful.”

The axes of the educational theory are:

1. The “assimilation” or “process anchor” of new knowledge on already previously acquired.
2. The importance attached to the use of “organizers.”

These organizers “are introductory material, clear and largely stable, which still present themselves before learning materials and involve high levels of Abstraction, generalization and comprehensiveness.” are organized, e.g., introduction to makes a book, to a subject, the presentation made to a museum before starting the visit it, and so on.

When learning new material can be completely new to the student, should use “exhibition organizer,” and when he is familiar, will be used “Comparable organizations.” The educational value of the organizers depend on the way they have organized their own learning materials, and Of course, these organizers must themselves be very easy to learn and be couched in terms accessible to the learner.” Examples of organizers: The introduction is made to a book, to a subject, a visit to a museum …

Aussubel speaks of two types of learning: ‘rote learning’ and ‘learning meaningful.” depending on the conditions under which it occurs.

Mechanical learning: If the tasks are pure arbitrary associations, meaningless. The same applies if the new knowledge can not be anchored in prior knowledge or when they are held so rote-verbal.

Meaningful learning: It will when the assimilation of new knowledge to previously acquired and occurs rationally, and establishing connections and relationships that allow the integration of new knowledge with the preceding.

New ideas can be learned and retained only if they refer to concepts or already available proposals that provide conceptual anchors. If the new learning contents create a strong conflict with the existing cognitive structure or if there is total lack of connection, new information may not be incorporated or retained.

For the new learning to be meaningful, requires the student an active role. Must establish anchorages with previously existing information: finding similarities and differences.

Meaningful learning is not content with simply memorizing verbal, but provision requiring the student to the understanding and the relationship of the material.

Meaningful learning is accompanied by the following variables:

• Intrapersonal:
  • Cognitive structures or hierarchy of knowledge.
  • Maturity or stage of development the subject.
  • Motivational and attitudinal factors.
  • Factors of personality.
• Situation:
  • Practice and exercise.
  • Provision of instructional materials.
  • Social factors and group.
  • Characteristics of the teacher.

Vygotsky. Development Potential.

For Vygotsky, the child in their development process, will understanding and acquiring the language and concepts used by adults, and this is due to the constant interaction with people and by meeting the physical world.

Adults, especially teachers, play a role mediating between the child and the social culture in order to perform linguistic and cognitive learning.

Vygotsky’s theory is against Piaget’s stages of learning. For Piaget learning is given as an innate development, whereas for Vygotsky it all depends on experiences of the social environment, so that learning can accelerate ripening. The social relations play a role in cognitive development of the individual.

The people who surround the child are active agents of development. In this theory intelligence is a product of social relationships.

For Vygotsky potential learning depends on the following cases:

1. “The CIA is the product of intelligent learning.” And, although the intellectual ratio can be measured, it can not be verified just as everything the person is able to learn, as this will also depend on the social environment in which they live immersed child
2. “Much of children with low scores on intelligence tests are rather “cultural deprivation” due to lack social stimulation to develop their intelligence.

2.1.3 .- Ecological Paradigm and Social Context

Some Characteristic Features:

• Basic metaphor: the settings.
• Shortcut model.
• Paradigm of research: ethnography.
• Teacher MODEL: technical – critical.
• Curriculum MODEL: open and flexible.
• Qualitative assessment.
• The classroom teacher as manager: power interactions, creates expectations and creates a climate of trust.
• Teaching – Learning: focus in life and context.

Feuerstein: Social Interactionism

The learning model proposed by Feuerstein argues:

1. That many individuals have a higher capacity for thought and behavior development intelligent than that apparent in the implementation of an intelligence test. This model distinguishes between capacity for learning and intellectual capacity. These are not synonymous.
2. The modifiability of human behavior to be achieved through situations structured learning. the subject is given an index of capacity that remains hidden and that can be aroused.

“Experience mediate cognitive learning (given through a mediator) affects individual’s cognitive structure “in the following phases:

• Phase Input (Input): “It indicates the mental act which accumulates information.” It involves collecting all necessary information and describe the facts as they occurred and place them in their space. Input corresponds to input elements, information, initial purposes.
  The teacher poses questions and asks them (insight) so that they are different strategies to solve the problem: How do you think you can solve?, what steps will you follow?, do you think of any difficulty? These questions focus the child. They may be throw expressions: “I know!, and I have seen it, now I’m!
  You should take advantage of errors: Why do you think you’re wrong?, Could you have provided the error?
• Phase of development: It appears as the subject “processes, prepares, organizes and structures the information to solve a properly”. If the subject makes appropriate use of information available. involves using the information received, relevant data response testing. This phase would focus on the learning process.
• Phase out (output): “It involves the communication of results thinking process and the path for arrival at that result.
  The teacher works at all times with the child and should answer all questions it will make. It creates a climate of collaboration.
  Every child, despite the limits of their capacity, can always improve.

In this paradigm in mind throughout the process by which the student has reached a response. The process is granted such status to be considered a major criterion valid for evaluation. Feuerstein coincides with Piaget downplay consider product and process priority. The essence of the CIA is not intelligent product measure, but the active structure of the individual.

In this model values the process and outcome of the skill and readiness of information processing. It will be more emphasis on the successes that errors (BARLOW).

Feuerstein’s model is broader than the cognitive. It differs from it in the Feuerstein method proposed for assessment and intervention is “structural – functional.”

• Structural: As it does not refer to individual events, but “the way in which the body interacts with information sources, acting and responding to them.”
  It is a maturation process that will determine the further development of the child.
• Functional: As it is not concerned only for operations

2.2 .- Constructive and Meaningful Learning.

2.2.1 .- Concept

Cesar Coll claims that “the constructive conception of school learning activity places Student mental constructive process based on personal development is promoting school activity. By the realization of meaningful learning, the learner constructs, modifies, diversifies and coordinates their schedules, establishing networks meanings that enrich their knowledge of physical and social world and increase their personal growth….”

Meaningful learning, memory and functionality understanding of learning are three essential aspects of this way of understanding learning and learning in general particular school.

2.2.2 .- Conceptual March, Networks, Conceptual Drawings and Epitome

The Epitome is a “global framework of a subject or area, or at least a block conceptual.”

Is a way of framing the fundamental concepts of a subject in all the same.

Is well aware of the conceptual networks, and provides “an overview that ranging from all the elements we are studying “at the time. It is the scaffolding conceptual support helps you discover new concepts on the already known.

• It is simple and viewable. It is simpler than a conceptual network.
• Use the conceptualization of theories, principles and concepts (little) and mental representation (a lot).
• A conceptual framework is the synthesis of three conceptual networks.
• The teacher always makes.
• It promotes meaningful learning subordinate and superordinate.

This is a simple and clear construction of the subject by relating the concepts.

RED-1 is the general framework of a subject or course, but when it comes to Education Primary Kids or covers an area. Includes large blocks are conceptual in official programs, adapted by the teacher to the specificity of the zone or center.

RED-2: It is reduced to a single block of content. Sets “new levels of development and development of basic concepts. This relates Conceptual Network Block Content to the issues to be structure.

RED-3: This is a more concrete specific part or concept of a block. It can include a structured and linked with items that are divided.

• Networks must be read from top to bottom and from left to right.
• Conceptual or Semantic Network is an organization of reticular concepts, which aims to link the concepts together so that acquire new meaning.
• The Network Concept is simple and viewable, has few concepts and supports the visual memory.
• Use the conceptualization of concepts, theories and principles, mental representation – mental image.
• The network may be subject, block or drive content didactic or center of interest.
• The networks are developed conceptual always the teacher to encourage coordinated meaningful learning.

They are an organization or geographical mapping of the concepts coming to the student. Deepen certain concepts considered relevant.

• The concept map is simple and viewable.
• Use the conceptualization of concepts, theories, and next to the student. It gives them all the importance of experience and concepts significant. It’s visual image – mental. It promotes the perception of facts, examples and experiences.
• Concept maps arise whenever the conceptual network of a subject, and deepen certain relevant concepts.
• The maps the students produced always asking questions.

The conceptual framework is the structuring of the concepts and “indicates the concepts that a student should learn.” Each of the networks has its own conceptual scheme.”

The starting point is the same as that of the networks. The difference is that schemas add more elements to the networks.

Learn classroom content are collected and structured schemes.

• The scheme is a structured organization of the concepts that the minimum student should learn.
• It is complex and structured.
• Use the conceptualization of the concepts, theories and principles and mental representation.
• Subject schemes are used, block content and theme.
• Elaborates schemes provided the student with the conceptual networks hand. They are always individualized.

2.3.3 .- Based Learning. ABP

1) Concept:

This is a “system of instruction and curriculum development simultaneously develops problem solving strategies, disciplinary knowledge and basic skills, placing students in the active role of problem-solvers ” when faced with an ill-defined problem that reflects real-world problems.”

The group is composed of students (5-8) and a tutor. It meets regularly to discuss the problems together. The group’s work focuses on the discovery and strengthening their own potential and capacity development cooperation.

The problems faced in each quarter and year are well selected and structured by the faculty of the institution or faculty.

We work on an interdisciplinary subjects in the coping of each case. This methodology responds to cognitive theories of learning, argues that Learning is a process that never ends and that also takes place along the exercise of the profession is part of the background of the students, they are and overcome significant gaps in knowledge to manage, and that students do not easily understood.

This methodology facilitates the formation of people, rather than content knowledge, know as search and know to make quick decisions.

2) Tasks and Moments:

1. Problem: Students have knowledge and experience about the problem, but do not have sufficient knowledge to its proper and appropriate solution. They will have to take awareness of the problem and consider how to solve it.
2. What we know already? It is written on the blackboard a list of the background already have on the subject.
3. What we need to know?
   The answer to this question will raise issues that will guide the research later date.
4. What can we do? Students determine their work plan to develop, formulate and test possible hypothesis.
5. Students’ personal job? It is going to investigate the sources of information: bibliography, internet, consultations with specialists, etc..
6. Presentation of findings to the group.
7. The group communicates the findings to teachers: In this presentation, oral or written, must include: defining the problem questions that made the group, collected data, data analysis and solution.

3) Tutor:

It is not a specialist teacher in all the contents of the different areas scientific, because the methodology is interdisciplinary, but a teacher who is able to control students, which provides that they are close to sources of information and work as a team to reach the satisfactory resolution of the problem.

The tutor does not give information to solve the problem, but poses challenges to students to arrive independently to solve the problem as a group and prepare for face similar problems in life.

The guardian is obliged to work separately and in collaboration with the expert teacher in the matter. At the same time, is learning simultaneously and in parallel with their students.

The work of the tutor with students is more in that they can learn to think and act that in learning content.