Periods in Science History, Methods, and Differences
Periods in the History of Science
The history of science can be divided into distinct periods, each with unique characteristics:
Ancient Science
Ancient science is closely tied to ancient philosophy. It can be further divided:
- Pre-Socratic Philosophy: Represented by figures like Thales and Pythagoras, science was theoretical, focusing on physis (nature).
- Classical Period: Shifted towards a more practical approach, focusing on humans and their lives, setting philosophy aside.
- Hellenistic Period: Science and philosophy aimed at providing therapy for the problems of the era.
- Roman Period: Romans absorbed existing knowledge, but significantly developed technology and law.
Ancient and Medieval Science
Characterized by the rise of “curtiorism”, based on theology and the rational demonstration of God.
Modern and Contemporary Science
Features authors like Newton, Kant, Marx, and Einstein.
Comparing Philosophy and Science
Throughout history, science and philosophy have been intertwined, often mistaken for the same thing. Both aim to provide a rational explanation of the universe. Early philosophers were also the first scientists, but they later diverged.
Science is knowledge, a scientific discourse dealing with everything that can be formulated mathematically. Philosophy is critical, focusing on questions that are often more important than the answers.
Science uses scientific discourse, while philosophy employs rational discourse. All scientific discourse is rational, but not all rational discourse is science. They also differ in their object of study. Science focuses on what is mathematically formulable, making it more precise and accurate than philosophy. Science tends to have a practical orientation, leading to the perception of its usefulness, while philosophy, with its theoretical orientation, is sometimes considered useless. Finally, the philosophy of science acts as a “metadiscourse”, providing a discourse on science itself.
Differences in Humanities and Experimental Sciences
Humanities and social sciences deal with human aspects like anthropology, sociology, and history. Interpretation plays a significant role in these fields. Experimental or empirical sciences, on the other hand, strive for greater objectivity.
Objective Knowledge
Objective knowledge is independent of individual viewpoints. It must be universal (valid for all cases and all people) and necessary (cannot be otherwise). This ideal of knowledge as absolute truth is often questioned by scientists, who acknowledge that science may not be able to know everything.
Is Psychology a Science?
No, because a key characteristic of science is its ability to predict future events. This cannot be fully applied to psychology because human behavior cannot be completely controlled; therefore, we cannot always predict what will happen.
What is Psychoanalysis?
Psychoanalysis is a curative therapy for mental illness. While it may not always cure, it provides help. It is also a theory within the field of personality psychology and, considering the subconscious, it offers an interpretation of culture and civilization.
Scientific Methods
Inductive Method (Hypothetical-Inductive)
Essential to physics. It involves inducing a general law from the observation or experimentation of a number of particular cases (moving from particular observations to a general law).
Axiomatic-Deductive Method
Fundamental to mathematics. It is the opposite of induction, moving from the general to the particular. It involves deriving specific statements from more general statements.