Pharmacology: A Comprehensive Guide to Drugs and Their Uses
Q1. What are the diuretics write any two drugs (examples).
Drugs promoting urine output are known as diuretic drugs, which refer only to those agents that act directly on the kidneys. These drugs primarily increase the excretion of water and ions like sodium (Na+), chloride (Cl-, or bicarbonates HCO3-) from the body. Glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion in kidneys determine the excretion of substances. It is also employed in the treatment of various disorders like diabetes insipidus, nephrotic syndrome, hypertension, nutritional oedema, oedema of pregnancy, and liver cirrhosis They also decrease the intracellular and cerebrospinal fluid pressure.
Examples- Examples of diuretics are given below: 1. Acetazolamine 2. Furosemide 3. Bumetanide
Acetazolamide
Acetazolamide is the prototype carbonic anhydrase inhibitor.This type of diuretics inhibit carbonic anhydrase enzyme in the membrane and cytoplasm of epithelial cell.
Uses-1)Acetazolamide is self-limiting in nature. 2)It produces adverse effects like acidosis and hypokalemia.
Stability and Storage Conditions- It can be stored up to 48 months. It should not be stored above 25° C
It should be stored in the original pack in order to protect from light and moisture.
Types of Formulations- Capsules Tablets
Popular Brand Names – Diamox, Diamox Sequels
Furosemide
Furosemide is a benzole-sulfonamide-furan with fast onset and short duration of action. It is used for treating oedema and chronic renal insufficiency.
Uses-It is used for the treatment of oedema related to congestive heart failure, liver cirrhiosis, and renal disease. It is also used either alone or with other antihypertensive agents for the management of hypertension.
Stability and Storage Conditions-It should be kept at room temperature from 59°F (15°C) and 86° F (30°C).This drug should be kept away from light.
Q. Explain Antiviral Agent example Acyclovir.
Antiviral agents are used for treating viral infections. Similar to antibiotics for bacteria, specific antivirals are effective against specific viruses. Antiviral drugs, instead of destroying their target pathogen, inhibit their development. Since antiviral drugs are harmless to the host, they can be used to treat infections.
Acyclovir
Acyclovir is a nucleotide analog antiviral that is used for treating infections like herpes simplex, herpes zoster, herpes labialis, and acute herpetic keratitis.
It is the first line drug to be used in the treatment of infections caused by these viruses.
Chemical Name- 2-Amino-1,9-dihydro-9-((2-hydroxyethoxy)methyl)-3H-purin-6-one
Uses- Acyclovir cream with hydrocortisone is used in recurrent herpes labialis, and shortening lesion healing time in 6 years and older patients
Acyclovir ophthalmic ointment is used in acute herpetic keratitis
Acyclovir oral tablets, capsules, and suspensions are used in herpes zoster, genital herpes, and chicken pox .
Acyclovir buccal tablet is used in recurrent herpes labialis
Q. Antifungal Drugs– The drugs which are used in the treatment of fungal infections are called antifungal agents.
Classification of Antifungal Agents: 1. Antibiotics, e.g. amphotericin-ẞ, griseofulvin, nystatin. 2. Pyrimidine derivatives, e.g. 5-flucytosine. 3. Azoles/ Imidazoles e.g. clotrimazole , miconazole , ketoconazole. 4. Allylamines, e.g. terbinafine 5. Thiocarbanilic acid derivatives e.g. tolnaflate 6. Phenolic compounds e.g. salicylic acid 7. Diamidines e.g. stilbamidine. 8. Dyes e.g. Gention voilet, malachite green9 Unsaturated fatty acids undecylenic acid
Ketoconazole- It is a imidazole derivative.
Chemical Name – 1-Acetyl-4-(4-[[2-(2,4-dichlorophenyl)-2(1H-imidazole-1-ylmeth- yl)-1,3-dioxolan-4-yl] methoxy] phenyl] piperazine.
Hypoglycemic drugs–Drugs used to treat diabetes mellitus by decreasing glucose levels in the blood.
Causitive agent of tuberculosis– Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
The abnormality of urinary tract infection is called Cystitis.
Symptoms of diabetes- feeling very thirsty, blurred vision , feeling tired, urinate more often.
Analgesic– A drug that reduces pain.
UTI- Urinary Tract Infection.
Types of diabetes mellitus- Type 1 Insulin dependent Type 2 Non insulin dependent.
INH- Isoniazid
NSAIDs examples-Aspirin Ibuprofen, naproxen, diclofenac.
The abnormality of pancreatic islets occurs in Diabetes.
MAOIS– Monoamine oxidase inhibitors.
The disturbance of rhythm is called heart arrhythmia.
Symptoms of hypertension- severe headaches, chest pain , dizziness, nausea , vomiting.
Angina pectoris is chest pain that keeps coming back.
IDDM– Insulin dependent diabetes mellitus
PABA– para amino benzoic acid
Insomnia is a sleep disorder in which you have trouble falling or staying asleep.
Normal range of Blood pressure – 120/80mm hg
Normal range of blood sugar levels-70 mg/dl-100mg/dl.
Discuss in detail about three ring hydrocyclic compounds with example.
Three-Membered Heterocyclic Compounds-These heterocyclic compounds contain three atoms which may be saturated or unsaturated. Based on the number of heteroatoms present, we can further classify them into two categories:
Heterocyclic compounds with one heteroatom.
As the name suggests, it has one heteroatom present in its ring. Examples: Aziridine, Oxirane, Thiirane, Azirine, Oxirene and Thiirene
Heterocyclic compounds with more than one heteroatom.
As the name suggests, it has more than one heteroatom present in its ring. The heteroatom atom in the ring can be the same or different. Examples: Diaziridine and Oxiaziridine
Discuss in detail about anesthetics with examples.
Anaesthetics: Anesthetics are drugs that are used to induce anesthesia, which is a temporary loss of sensation or awareness. There are two main types of anesthetics: local anesthetics and general anesthetics.
Local anesthetics block the sensation of pain in a specific area of the body. They are often used for dental procedures, minor surgery, and injections. General anesthetics cause a loss of consciousness and a general loss of sensation throughout the body. They are used for major surgery, childbirth, and other procedures that require the patient to be completely unconscious.
Thiopental Sodium: Chemical name: sodium 5-ethyl-5-pentan-2-yl-2-sulfanylidene-1,3-diazinane-4,6-dione Uses: They are used treat convulsions, and reduce intracranial pressure. Thiopental sodium may be employed in the ICU to provide sedation for patients requiring mechanical ventilation or other invasive procedures.Stability and storage conditions: It should be stored at 22°C. Thiopental remains stable and sterile for 6 days and well beyond 7 days at 3°C. Types of formulations Injection, Powder, Solution Brand names: Thiojex, Pentone, Pentothal .
What are urinary tract anti-infective agents with examples.
The drugs which are used to treat or prevent infections of urinary tract are called urinary tract anti-infective agents.
Ofloxacin
Ofloxacin is a synthetic fluonoquinolone antibiotic. Chemical Name- 9-Fluoro-2,3-dihydro-3-methyl-104(4-methyl-1-piperazin-yl)-7- xo-7H-pyrido[1, 2, 3-de]-1,4,-benzoxazine-6-carboxylic acid. Properties- 1. It occurs as a pale yellow or bright yellow, crystalline powder. 2. It is soluble in glacial acetic acid. 3. It is slightly soluble in water, dichloromethane and methanol. Stability and Storage – It should be stored at room temperature and should be kept away from light and moisture.Uses – 1. It is useful in the treatment of genitourinary, respiratory, gas trointestinal infections. 2. It is used in the treatment of bronchitis and pneumonia. Pharmaceutical Formulations- 1. Ofloxacin tablets IP 2. Ofloxacin oral suspension IP 3. Ofloxacin ophthalmic solution IP 4. Ofloxacin infusion IP. Brand Names- Oflox, Exocin, Zenflox, Zanocin, Tarivid.
What are antiarrhythmic drugs?
Definition of ‘antianginal’-
Anti anginal is any drug that reduce is consumption of oxygen in the myocardium the muscular tissue of the heart or increases oxygen supply to the myocardium to prevent the symptoms of angina.
Anti-Depressants: Antidepressants are a class of medications used to treat depression and other mental health conditions. Examples-
Imipramine Hydrochloride: Chemical Name: 3-(10,11-dihydro-5H-dibenzo[b,f]azepin-5-yl)-N,N-dimethylpropan-1-amine Uses: Imipramine is a medication used in the treatment of depression and anxiety. Stability and Storage Conditions: It should be kept in a cool, dry place and stored at room temperature. Direct sunlight is prohibited. Type of Formulation: Tablet Capsule Oral suspension Brand Name: Tofranil
Fluoxetine, Chemical Name: N-methyl-3-phenyl-3-[4-(trifluoromethyl)phenoxy]propan-1-amine.Uses- Fluoxetine is used to treat depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), bulimia nervosa, premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD Stability and Storage Conditions: It should be kept in a cool, dry place and stored at room temperature. Direct sunlight is prohibited. Type of Formulation: Tablet Capsule Oral suspension Brand Name: Prozac
Anticonvulsants: Anticonvulsants, also known as antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) or antiseizure drugs, are medications used to prevent or control seizures. They work by affecting the electrical activity in the brain.
Phenytoin: Chemical Name: Sodium 5,5-diphenyl-2, 4-imidazolidinedione Uses: Phenytoin is a medication used in the management and treatment of epilepsy, generalized tonic-clonic seizures, complex partial seizures, and status epilepticus. Stability and Storage Conditions It s be stored in the tightly closed or sealed container. Types of Formulations: Tablet Capsule Oral suspension Injectable solution Brand Name: Epanutin Epanutin Infatabs.
Cholinergic drugs- Any drug that mimics the action and nature of acetylcholine or butrylcholine can be called cholinergic.
Acetylcholine: Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter at neuromuscular junctions, at synapses in the ganglia of the visceral motor system, and at a variety of sites within the central nervous system. Chemical Name: 2-Acetoxy-N,N,N-trimethylethanaminium
Anti-inflammatory drugs-Anti-inflammatory agents are medications that reduce inflammation.
Diclofenac- Chemical Name: [2-(2,6-Dichloroanilino)phenyl]acetic acid . Chemical structure-
Uses: Diclofenac is a medicine that reduces swelling (inflammation) and pain. It’s used to treat aches and pains, as well as problems with joints, muscles and bones. Stability and storage conditions: It should be kept in a cool, dry place and stored at room temperature. Direct sunlight is prohibited. Types of formulations: Tablets Popular brand names: Zipsor Zorvolex
Anti infective agents are drugs that are used to treat or prevent infction.
Analgesics are medications that relieve pain
Properties- 1. It is a white to off-white crystalline powder. 2. It is freely soluble in dichloromethane. 3. It is soluble in chloroform and in methanol. 4. It is sparingly soluble in ethanol. 5. It is practically insoluble in water and in ether.
Stability and Storage- It is stored in a well closed container protected from light and at con- trolled room temperature,
Uses- 1. It is a broad spectrum antifungal. 2. It is used to treat seborrheic dermatitis and fungal skin infections. 3. It is used orally to treat severe refractory cutaneous dermato- phytic infections. 4. Ketoconazole is used for the treatment of systemic fungal infections such as candidiasis, coccidioidomycosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, chromomycosis, paracoccidioidomycosis.
Pharmaceutical Formulations: 1. Ketoconazole tablets IP 2. Ketoconazole lotion.3. Ketoconazole cream.4. Ketoconazole ointment. 5. Ketoconazole antidandruff shampoo.
Brand Names- Ketovate, Funginoc, Danruf, Nizrol, Funazole, Antanazol, Ketazole.
Q. Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)
What are non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)? Classify NSAIDs with suitable examples.
These are the drugs which are used to relieve pain, reduce inflammation and also lower the elevated body temperature. The NSAIDs act by inhibition of the cyclo-oxygenase (COX) enzyme.
Paracetamol- Chemical Name: N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)acetamide
Uses: Paracetamol is a medicine used to treat mild to moderate pain. Paracetamol can also be used to treat fever (high temperature).
Stability and storage conditions: It should be kept in a cool, dry place and stored at room temperature. Direct sunlight is prohibited.
Types of formulations: Tablets
Popular brand names: Tylenol Excedrin
Types of Formulations- Tablet, Solution Popular Brand Names- Lasix, Diaqua-2, Lo-Aqua
Q. What are the Anti Tubercular Agent with example ?
Tuberculosis (TB) is an infective diseases most commonly affecting the lungs, and caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium bovis. Since TB is an it spreads via air in the form of small droplets Patients infected with pulmonary TB or laryngeal TB may the infection by sneezing, coughing, singing, or even while talking. The infective droplets, once released into the air in there for a few hours due to their very small size. Tuberculosis can be treated in a long-term, i.e.. 8 months to 3 years.Tuberculosis infection can be cured it proper treatment is given within time. Non tuberculosis mycobacterial infections are known as M. arium complex (MAC) as they are caused by M. alam, M. kansali, M. murinum, and M. scrofulaceum. These organisms are resistant the commonly used anti-tuberculosis drugs; thus along with the standard Jugh some newer agents like fluoroquinolones, amikacin clarithromycin, azithromycin, or rifabutin are used.
Isoniazid
Isoniazid (or isonicotinylhydrazine, INH) an organic compound used the first line drug for preventing and treating tuberculosis.
Uses- It is used with other drugs in the treatment of active tuberculosis (TB) infection. Stability Storage Conditions-It should be stored in room temperature. Types of Formulations – Tablet, Solution Popular Brand Names – Nydrazid, Pms-Isoniazid
Q Write a note on Aspirin. Chemical Name-Ortho-acetoxy benzoic acid or 2-acetoxy benzoic acid Properties: 1. It occurs a white crystalline powder.2. It is colourless. 3. It is odourless and has slightly bitter taste. 4. It is soluble in water, freely soluble in alcohol, Stability and Storage- It should be stored in a well tightly closed container and protected from light and kept in a cool, dry place.Brand Names-Disprin, Aspro, Anacin.
Uses- It is used as analgesic to relieve moderate pains like headache, toothache.
Pharmaceutical Formulations- Aspirin tables BP, IP
Uses- Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that plays a role in memory, learning, attention, arousal and involuntary muscle movement. Stability and Storage Conditions: It should be kept in a cool, dry place and stored at room temperature. Direct sunlight is prohibited. Types of Formulations Powder for injection, Gels, Lozenges Brand Name: Miochol-E.
Hypoglycemic Agents: Hypoglycemic agents are medications that lower blood sugar levels. They are used to treat type 2 diabetes, a condition in which the body does not produce or use insulin effectively. There are several different types of hypoglycemic agents, each with its own mechanism of action.
Metformin- Chemical Name: N,N-Dimethylimidodicarbonimidic diamide Uses: Metformin is used to treat high blood sugar levels that are caused by a type of diabetes mellitus or sugar diabetes called type 2 diabetes. Stability and storage conditions: It should be kept in a cool, dry place and stored at room temperature. Direct sunlight is prohibited. Types of formulations: Tablets Popular brand names: Fortamet Glumetza .
Glibenclamide- Chemical Name: 5-chloro-N-[2-[4-(cyclohexylcarbamoylsulfamoyl) phenyl]ethyl]-2-methoxybenzamide Uses: Glibenclamide is used to lower the blood sugar level in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus that is not controlled by diet and exercise alone. . It is used along with diet and exercise to improve blood sugar control in adults with type 2 diabetes. Glibenclamide is an antidiabetic medication. Stability and storage conditions: It should be kept in a cool, dry place and stored at room temperature. Direct sunlight is prohibited. Types of formulations: Tablets Popular brand names: Gliben-J, Daonil,
Examples of anti-fungal drugs – Fluconazole -Chemical Name- α -(2, 4-Difluorophenyl)-α -(1H-1, 2, 4-triazol-1-ylmethyl)-1H-1, 2, 4-triazole-1-ethanol. Properties- 1. It is a white crystalline powder. 2. It is slightly soluble in water. 3. It is soluble in organic solvents such as chloroform, propylene glycol. Stability and Storage – It should be stored in a tightly closed container at a temperature Jess than 30°C. Pharmaceutical Formulations- 1. Fluconazole tablets IP 2. Fluconazole capsules IP 3. Fluconazole oral suspension IP
Examples – Isosorbide Dinitrate Chemical Name: 1,4-Dioxane-3,5-diyl dinitrate Uses: Isosorbide dinitrate is a prescription medication used to treat angina pectoris (chest pain). It works by relaxing the blood vessels, which increases blood flow to the heart. Stability and storage condition: It should be stored in a closed container at room temperature, away from heat, moisture, and direct light. Keep from freezing. Types of formulations: Tablets Capsules Sublingual Popular brand names: Dilatrate-SR Isordil
Define antipsychotic drugs .
What are Adrenergic antagonists ?
Adrenergic antagonists (adrenoblockers) are compounds that inhibit the action of adrenaline (epinephrine), noradrenaline (norepinephrine), and other catecholamines that control autonomic outflow and some functions of the central nervous system at the adrenergic receptors or inhibit their release. Adrenoblockers are highly effective pharmaceuticals that are used broadly in treatment of cardiac diseases. Their physiological effects include the dilation of blood vessels, which lowers blood pressure and slows heart rate.
Two types of adrenoreceptors—α1 and α2—are known. Selective α1 adrenoblockers inhibit the ability of catecholamines to constrict the blood vessels. α2 Adrenoblockers are mainly used in research, finding limited clinical application.
Discuss in detail about sedatives and hypnotics.
Sedatives and Hypnotics: Sedatives: Sedatives are drugs that reduce irritability or excitement, promoting a sense of calm and relaxation. They can be used to treat anxiety, agitation, or tension. Some common sedatives include benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and certain antihistamines. Hypnotics: Hypnotics are drugs specifically used to induce sleep. They are also known as sleep aids or sleeping pills. Some common hypnotics include zolpidem (Ambien), eszopiclone (Lunesta), and zaleplon (Sonata). Examples of sedatives and hypnotics-
Diazepam: Diazepam is a medication belonging to the benzodiazepine class of sedative-hypnotics. It is commonly prescribed for its anxiolytic (anti-anxiety), sedative, muscle relaxant, and anticonvulsant properties. Chemical name: 7-chloro-1-methyl-5-phenyl-3H-1,4-benzodiazepin-2-one Uses: Diazepam is used to treat anxiety, alcohol withdrawal, and seizures. It is also used to relieve muscle spasms and to provide sedation before medical procedures. Stability and storage conditions: Diazepam injection is chemically stable as 5mg doses in disposable glass syringes for 90 days when stored at 4°C or 30°C. It should be stored in refrigerator. Types of Formulations Tablet, Oral solution, Rectal gel,
Anti-Hypertensive Agents: Antihypertensive agents are a class of drugs that are used to treat hypertension, also known as high blood pressure.
Propranolol– Propranolol is a beta-adrenergic receptor antagonist. Chemical Name: Its chemical name is 1-(1-isopropylamino)-3-(1-naphthoxy)-2-propanol. Uses: Propranolol is used to treat a variety of conditions, including: High blood pressure (hypertension) Angina (chest pain) Arrhythmias (irregular heartbeats) Hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid) Proliferating infantile hemangioma (a type of birthmark) Stability and Storage Conditions: Propranolol is stable at room temperature. It should be stored in a cool, dry place, away from direct sunlight. Types of Formulations: Propranolol is available in a variety of formulations, including: Tablets Capsules Extended-release tablets Oral solution Injection Popular Brand Names: Inderal
Captopril– Captopril is a L-proline derivative in which L-proline is substituted on nitrogen with a (2S)-2- methyl-3-sulfanylpropanoyl group. Chemical Name: (2S)-1-[(2S)-2-methyl-3-sulfanylpropanoyl]pyrrolidine-2-carboxylic acid.Uses: Captopril is an angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor. ACE inhibitors work by blocking the production of a hormone called angiotensin II. Angiotensin II is a powerful vasoconstrictor, which means that it causes blood vessels to narrow. By blocking the production of angiotensin II, captopril helps to relax blood vessels and lower blood pressure. Stability and storage conditions: It should be kept in a cool, dry place and stored at room temperature. Direct sunlight is prohibited. Types of formulations: Tablets Capsules Oral solution Intravenous solution Popular brand names: Capoten Capozide