Philip II and the Hispanic Monarchy: Power, Conflicts, and Iberian Unity
Philip II and the Hispanic Monarchy: Iberian Unity
Objectives and the Black Legend
Philip II (1556-1598) embodies the absolute monarch, establishing his court in Madrid and constructing the monumental Escorial residence. Inheriting his father’s policy objectives, excluding the title of emperor, Philip II focused on securing European hegemony and defending his inherited territories.
He shifted from his father’s universal policy to a confessional one, prioritizing the defense of Catholicism. While religious motives guided his decisions, he primarily aimed to maintain religious and political unity against minorities, promoting the Counter-Reformation in Spain.
The “Black Legend” casts a negative light on Philip II, fueled by opponents like William of Orange and Antonio Perez. They accused him of crimes such as murdering his son Don Carlos, his wife Elizabeth of Valois, and Registrar Escobedo. However, no evidence supports these charges. The enduring popularity of the Don Carlos legend is largely due to Verdi’s opera.
Another aspect of the Black Legend attributes all the Spanish Empire’s mistakes and crimes to Philip II, including the suffering of indigenous peoples in America (protested by Bartolomé de las Casas), the execution of Protestants in Spain (documented by Reginaldo González Montano), and the execution of nobles under the Duke of Alba’s regime in the Netherlands.
External Conflicts and Iberian Unity
Philip II defeated the French at San Quentin (1557), leading to a period of peace with France. Later, the Spanish and Venetian fleet triumphed over the Turks at Lepanto (1571). A major challenge was the revolt in the Netherlands, where autonomy demands intertwined with the spread of Calvinism in the north (Holland). The Duke of Alba’s intervention failed to prevent the division between the Protestant north and the Catholic south (Belgium). England aided the Protestant Dutch and harassed Spanish dominions in America, prompting Philip II to send the ill-fated Armada (1588).
Iberian Unity
In 1580, the Portuguese throne became vacant. Philip II, son of Isabel of Portugal, asserted his rights and defeated the Portuguese army. He secured the support of the Portuguese ruling class by promising to respect their autonomy, protect their trade, and using funds to buy supporters. The Portuguese Courts recognized him as king in 1581, fully realizing the Hispanic monarchy and granting control over a vast maritime empire, including Brazil and commercial enclaves in Africa and Asia.
Internal Challenges
Philip II faced internal problems, such as the revolt of the Moriscos of Granada (1568-1571), also known as the Revolt of the Alpujarras. The dubious conversion of the Moors, potential allies of Turkish and North African pirates, led to restrictive rules on their language and culture. The revolt was suppressed, and survivors were deported throughout Castile, their lands confiscated. Attempts to repopulate the area with Christians from the north had limited success. Consequently, the Andalusian coast became more vulnerable to raids by North African pirates, who had previously found support among the Granadan Moors. He also faced challenges in Aragon in 1591, stemming from:
- The economic crisis that fostered endemic banditry.
- Dissatisfaction among some nobles with royal intervention.
- Difficulties faced by the Inquisition in establishing itself in Aragon.
In this environment, Antonio Perez, the king’s former secretary, sought refuge in Zaragoza after escaping imprisonment for the murder of Don John of Austria’s secretary. Perez invoked the jurisdiction of the Chief Justice. When the Inquisition attempted to arrest him, the Aragonese considered it a violation of their laws and released him. Eventually, the arrival of a royal army allowed the king to regain control.