Philip II of Spain: Reign and Challenges (1556-1598)
Philip II (1556-1598)
Philip II was King of Spain, Portugal, Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, England, and Ireland, Duke of Milan, Duke of Burgundy, and sovereign owner of the Low Countries. In 1556, Charles V abdicated in favor of his son, Philip II, granting him Castile, Aragon, Flanders, the Duchy of Milan, and Franche-Comte. The Imperial title and Austria were given to Ferdinand I, Charles V’s brother and Philip II’s uncle.
Portuguese Succession
In 1578, the King of Portugal, a cousin of Philip II, died childless. Philip II claimed the right to the throne, and in 1580, the Duke of Alba invaded Portugal, which offered little resistance. Philip II respected Portuguese institutions, laws, and public offices. At the Cortes of Tomar (1581), Philip II was proclaimed King. With this union of two colonial empires, the Treaty of Tordesillas became obsolete.
Foreign Policy Challenges
The Ottoman Threat
The Ottoman Empire expanded, dominating the Mediterranean as far as Tunisia by 1570. In response, the Catholic League (a union of the naval forces of the Pope, Spain, and Venice) was established, promoted by Pope Pius V to defend the Mediterranean. Most of the forces were from Philip II and were sent by his half-brother. This fleet destroyed the Turkish fleet at the Battle of Lepanto (1571).
Rebellion in the Low Countries
The Low Countries rebelled. The leading causes were:
- Philip II was a foreign king.
- Governor Margaret of Parma exercised a misguided policy of repression.
- Political offices were held by Spaniards, relegating the local nobility.
- Calvinism was popular, and Protestants were persecuted, causing riots in northern cities.
In 1567, the Duke of Alba was sent with the Tercios to violently repress dissidents, impose taxes, and create special courts. This led even Catholics in the South to support the uprising. In 1571, William of Orange led the movement, and the government enacted independent states in the North. In 1579, Governor Alexander Farnese achieved the Union of Arras (an agreement with Catholic states in the South). Calvinists and independent states responded with the Union of Utrecht, proclaiming independence from the United Provinces. Farnese put down dissidents with the Treaty of Arras and conducted the Siege of Antwerp, establishing borders in the Low Countries.
Conflict with England
Conflict with England began with the death of Mary Tudor, wife of Philip II. Elizabeth I (an Anglican Protestant) ascended the throne. England and France opposed the Treaty of Tordesillas, promoting piracy (Drake and Hawkins). Elizabeth I also supported Protestants in the Low Countries and interrupted Spanish trade. When Farnese took Antwerp in 1585, Philip II decided to intervene in Flanders and invade England.
The Spanish Armada, led by the Duke of Medina Sidonia, was not accustomed to the ocean or adverse weather and faced many problems. The plan was to collect the infantry in Flanders and proceed to England, but the British navy prevented this. The Armada was severely harassed and had to retreat north of England. This incident discredited Spain, resulting in significant financial losses. The American shores were left unprotected as Spain lost maritime dominance. This marked the beginning of the decline of Spanish power.
Economic Decline
The economic downturn was blamed on wars, the tax burden on citizens (taxpayers in Castile), who ceded their crown to lenders demanding cash, and multiple bankruptcies. Public debt led to impoverishment.