Philip II: Reign, Iberian Union, and Conquests
Philip II: A Powerful Reign
Philip II, son of Charles I, reigned over the Hispanic possessions from 1556 to 1598.
He aimed to maintain Spain’s hegemony in Europe and ensure the triumph of Catholicism. He pursued a foreign policy that continued his father’s legacy, including the war with France. Spain won the Battle of San Quintin, leading to the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis.
His personal political focus highlighted the Mediterranean region. He suppressed the rebellion of the Moriscos in Granada from 1568 to 1570 and fought the Ottoman Empire, forming the Holy League with the papacy and Venice, defeating the Turks at the Battle of Lepanto in 1571. Conflicts with England arose due to piracy in the Caribbean and English support for Dutch insurgents. The Spanish Armada was defeated in 1588. He managed to unite the Iberian Peninsula by annexing Portugal in 1580.
His domestic policy focused on authoritarianism and intolerance. He persecuted Lutherans in Valladolid and Seville, leading to a ban in 1559 on students studying abroad, causing Spanish scientific and cultural isolation. The Moors were exiled after the revolt of the Alpujarras (1568-1571).
The Iberian Union
Philip II sought to consolidate Spanish hegemony, making the incorporation of Portugal necessary. When the childless King of Portugal died, Philip presented his candidacy for the throne as the son of Charles I and Isabella of Portugal. The nobility and clergy were inclined towards him, while the popular classes and lower clergy favored Antonio de Crato, another candidate.
After the war, the troops of the Duke of Alba prevailed, and in 1581, Philip was recognized as King of Portugal in the courts. This merger achieved Iberian unity. Philip stayed in Portugal for two years, but the lower classes remained discontent, desiring the return of Don Sebastian. With all the peninsular territories, European territories, and overseas possessions, Philip became the monarch of the most extensive empire ever.
Conquests and Colonization
The conquests were achieved by conquerors with humble means, using firearms that were effective due to the fear they instilled in the indigenous populations.
Key Conquests:
- Mexico (Hernán Cortés, 1519-1521): Despite having only a thousand men, Cortés managed to conquer the Aztec empire. The “Noche Triste” (1520) saw the Aztecs defeat the Spanish in Tenochtitlan, but Cortés, with Tlaxcaltecas allies, won the Battle of Otumba.
- Peru (Pizarro, 1531-1533): The Incas were in a civil war between Huascar and Atahualpa. After killing Atahualpa, Pizarro conquered Peru.
Colonization:
Colonization aimed for universalism, treating Indians as equals to Spaniards. The Church played a primary role in this process.