Philosophical Concepts and Movements
French Revolution (FR)
The country was divided into three social classes: the clergy, the nobility, and common people. The FR aimed to overthrow the monarchy to establish a democracy based on liberty, equality, and fraternity. It succeeded in implementing new traditions and a capitalist economy, replacing hereditary possession with personal possession. While the government transitioned from monarchy, the revolution ended with a new empire in France, resulting in many lives lost, including those of innocent people killed by Napoleon during his efforts to rebuild France.
John Stuart Mill
His philosophy is based on the harm principle, which holds that each individual is free to express and act as long as they do not harm or infringe upon the liberty of others. Mill argued that opinions should never be censored or controlled. His purpose was to promote liberty and justice, emphasizing the preservation of liberty.
Thomas Hobbes
Hobbes established the social contract theory, asserting that creating a commonwealth is logical and necessary. He believed that civil peace and social unity are best achieved through a social contract because humans act out of self-interest. Hobbes argued that the most powerful government is the best, as humans are inherently selfish, and without government, life would be a war of every man against every man, making life solitary, nasty, brutish, and short. People form states to protect themselves from their warlike tendencies, necessitating a contract.
Social Contract Theory (SCT)
SCT is one of the most influential theories in modern political philosophy. It posits that justice is equivalent to pursuing the public interest and that all members of society are equal, eliminating natural inequalities within states. SCT promotes a better quality of life.
General Will
Rousseau believed that all humans have equal rights and that the best government is a democracy. Through the social contract, people vote on their laws, preserving their freedom. Rousseau described the ideal social contract where people in civil society, known as the sovereign, collectively express the general will. He defined the general will as the collective need to provide for the common good, with its primary function being to inform the sovereign in creating laws.
Pacifism
Pacifism argues that political action, like other human behavior, should be moral. There are two types of pacifism:
- Absolute pacifism: Holds that war and violence are always wrong. Gandhi is a famous example.
- Conditional pacifism: Holds that war and violence are generally wrong but justifiable in extreme or rare situations. Jan Narveson, an anti-pacifist philosopher, argued that absolute pacifism is incoherent.
Karl Marx
Marx believed society consisted of two classes: the bourgeoisie (owners) and the proletariat (working class). The bourgeoisie, or capitalists, owned the means of production and forced the proletariat to work for them. Marx argued that private and class societies are detrimental and that communism is necessary to create a good society. The ultimate goal was to establish an ideal socialist society where all forms of government would disappear, private property would be abolished, and a transition to communism would occur.
Feminism
Feminism advocates for women’s rights, including political, social, and economic equality with men. The movement is divided into three waves:
- First wave: 19th century, focused on suffrage and women’s participation in politics and society.
- Second wave: 1960s-1990s, more radical, addressing sexuality and reproductive rights, forming women-only organizations to combat sexism.
- Third wave: Mid-1990s to present, defending feminine beauty and challenging sexist patriarchy. Today, feminism continues to address wage gaps and violence against women.