Philosophical Concepts: Kant, Hume, Locke, Aristotle, Plato, Augustine, Aquinas, Descartes
Kant
Types of Judgments
Kant distinguishes between two types of judgments:
- Analytical: The predicate is already contained within the subject, obtainable through simple analysis. These judgments are always true, universal, and necessary, but do not expand scientific knowledge.
- Synthetic: The predicate is not contained within the subject but adds to it. Synthetic a posteriori judgments are based on experience but are not universal or necessary. Synthetic a priori judgments, however, are both universal and necessary, forming the basis of science, as they are independent of experience. The “Critique of Pure Reason” studies synthetic a priori judgments.
Faculties of Knowledge
Kant distinguishes three cognitive faculties: sensibility, understanding, and reason. Sensibility is covered in the “Transcendental Aesthetic,” understanding in the “Transcendental Analytic,” and reason in the “Transcendental Dialectic.”
a) Space and Time as a priori Forms of Sensibility
The plurality of data provided by the senses must be organized to become objects of knowledge. This is possible thanks to two a priori forms of sensibility: space and time. Our sensibility is structured spatially and temporally, providing the conditions for experiencing things. Space is the a priori form of external experience, and time is the a priori form of internal experience. As a priori forms, they are the basis of universality and necessity, thus forming the foundation of geometry and arithmetic. Pure forms are a priori.
b) Imagination and Understanding
Sensibility receives empirical intuitions and transmits them to understanding. Imagination synthesizes sensitive material with the concepts of understanding through schemas.
Transcendental Analytic: Understanding and Categories
After the synthesis by imagination, understanding produces objective knowledge. Understanding has its own a priori forms: categories. Categories are pure, non-empirical concepts possessed by understanding, serving as forms of unity to organize and judge phenomena objectively, constituting knowledge. This knowledge is based on experience and is universal and necessary.
Transcendental Dialectic
The Transcendental Dialectic determines whether metaphysics is a real science. Kant critiques rationalist metaphysics (substantial self, the world, God). According to Kant, these topics are dealt with by reason through non-a priori judgments (ideas). Ideas are necessary for human dynamism but do not provide knowledge. The idea of the self encompasses the phenomena of our experience. The world encompasses phenomena external to our subjectivity. God is the foundation of every phenomenon. Rationalist metaphysics is not science. Reason is important for human development.
Kant’s Ethics
For Kant, humans act according to principles or laws governing moral behavior, called imperatives:
- Hypothetical: Commands that are conditional and serve as means to an end; thus, not moral.
- Categorical: Unconditional commands that dictate good actions as necessary and universal.
Kant’s ethics is based on duty, which the will imposes on itself. The categorical imperative is unconditional and self-imposed by the will. Moral law does not require material content; its principles are formal. Kant’s ethics is based on the form of the will’s obligations, not on any sensible object or empirical content. Laws are imposed without conditions.
Postulates of Practical Reason
Kant’s postulates are propositions not theoretically demonstrable but depend on an unconditionally a priori practical law. Postulates:
- Freedom: Morality is impossible without freedom. The categorical imperative implies the autonomy of the will, which must be free.
- Immortality of the soul: The will seeks the supreme good (happiness and virtue), which is not fully achievable in this life; thus, the immortality of the soul is postulated.
- Existence of God: The existence of a necessary and perfect being (God) guarantees the union of virtue and happiness. God exercises causality outside the phenomenal world and ensures immortality.
Hume
Hume’s Phenomenalist Skepticism
Knowledge
Hume divides the contents of knowledge into impressions and ideas. Impressions are original contents of knowledge, and ideas are derived from impressions. Impressions can be of sensation or reflection. Sensations are due to external senses. Reflections arise from our internal mental activity and are the result of activating ideas. The process of knowledge is: 1. Impression of sensation. 2. Idea (weakened copy of the antecedent impression). 3. Impression of reflection (result of activating an idea). The difference between ideas and impressions lies in two characteristics: impressions are more lively than ideas, and impressions originate ideas. The criterion of distinction is vivacity.
Truths of reason are necessary, their opposite is impossible, they are innate, tautological, and based on the principle of identity or non-contradiction. Truths of fact are contingent, their opposite is possible, and they are based on the principle of sufficient reason and rely on reality. Hume introduces the principles of empiricism: there are no innate ideas.
The Laws of Association and the Theory of Causality
Impressions and ideas do not act in isolation but are grouped associatively. Hume identifies three laws: resemblance, contiguity, and causality. The law of cause and effect (causality) is central. Hume criticizes real causality, denying that we can know any real causal process. What we know is that one phenomenon precedes another, which we call the effect. The law of causality is an act of our mind, due to our experience, which leads us to understand phenomena.
Phenomenalism and Knowledge-Value
Hume’s phenomenalist theory posits that we cannot know anything beyond phenomena; everything beyond them is objects of belief.
Criticism of Substance and the Thinking Self
The idea of substance lacks a corresponding impression. This is the basis of Hume’s criticism of the idea of substance. Hume argues that the idea of substance is illegitimate because we cannot find an impression from which to derive it. The imagination leads us to imagine things as substances, but we do not possess the idea of substance. Hume does not deny that we exist, but he says that we believe in the world and in ourselves through experience, not through strict knowledge.
Political Ethics and Religion
Hume’s ethics is emotivist, rejecting attempts to found it on reason; humans are moved by passion and feeling. Politics: Societies are formed from families based on utility. The state of nature and the social contract are indemonstrable fictions. Religion: The existence of God cannot be proven. Hume proposes moderate skepticism to overcome dogmatism and superstitions.
John Locke
Ideas simple experience and knowledge.
Distigue 2tipos of experience: the feeling or experience external realizan mediante which is the perceptions of the sensitive Cualidades externas. / reflections or the expertise, which complain percibe THROUGH HIS / HER OWN operations.
There is no other source of ideas, reflections k sea feeling.
Idea for Locke was “everything the mind k percibe in himself, or objeto inmediato perceptions, ideas and conocemos immediately if conocems something different in them, We have to get to know him through ellas.las are the key ideas of knowledge.
The simple ideas are the k are received directly from the experiencia.como our mind is blank, the ideas are simple impone.nuestra us reflects the mind as a mirror.
The ideas complejas
Are the result of the combination of a variety of operations and the k value of simple ideas in mind brings cape.
There 2tipos of a passive and receptive mind of simple ideas and a mind to use ideas complejas Producer (1s Falsas, other verdadras)
Critics of the idea of substance
Locke is content for the dark, confused and indeterminable.es k us an idea vems obligados form, but whose sense is desconocido.locke define the substance as “1nose k k k subyace to 1s Cualidades apareça conjuntamente.los empiristas niegan the abstracción . the validity of the universal, and generally get to know cualkier possibility of K are in essence things.
Liberalismo
Locke develops a political theory in the k state is the result of the surge cm Will of the individuals and k are the key to pieza sociedady x ellos ordenarse must be the beginning of the estado.este liberalismo. Locke does not accept the ultimate power of kings, supporter of the state institutions democráticas.el is necessary for regulating the use of the freedom
Aristoteles
Metaphysics
Q is the science being studied. Aristotle the trafficking issue as the categories and ways of preaching the referidas to substancias indiciduales, referidas the categories to identify the reality of everything tratan existe through the category of substance and accident. Entendemos by each of the substance that existe beings in the cosmos and Aristotle as those that define the self in existe, existe necesariamente accident while on the other. The single beings Seriana primeras substances that while the concepts Seriana Segundas substances. Required to be so as both event and encourages all that existe or power or event. The theory applied to the motor inmóvil principio del movimiento moviemiento that puts everything in the physical world, everything is mueve is another scene and is Necessary for the presence of 1 engine (God).
Conception of man
Does the man as naturally exerted is part of nature, so it’s due to material and shape, so the theory applies both hilemorfica defendiendo the sustancial union between body and soul. The soul is the rational principle of life and knowledge and distinguishes three standards of life vegetativas, sensitivas and rational. Aristotle underlines the importance of man porque dentro de los Libres and intelligent beings we can direct our behavior, our Will form and comply with the demands it puts us back to nature.
Theory of Knowledge
Distinguishes two classes in the men empowered:
– of knowledge-empowered empowered afectivas or apetitivas
Distinguishes two types of knowledge
External 1.sentidos: The starting point of all our senses are externos conocimientos, ya k Aristotle sostiene que nada existe in our prior understanding that no haya estado en nuestrso senses. Allowed us to capture the senses Cualidades sense of things and the common spaces such finalidad unify and coordinate everything else. From here interviene imagination and memory.
2.Los sensitive common: understanding the patient interviene (ignore all data and remarkable concretos).
Understanding the agent, and the ways to get to know CAPAZ ESSENTIALS existing objects in the remarkable and concretos.
Ethics and politics
How Platon not separate politics from ethics. Considers that the happy man and Virtuoso is not possible to bank the polis. The man is political by nature and can only live in the city dignamente. Both are political ethics as the science and have practicas como objeto regular las acciones Humanas.
The virtue is the middle reaches of the happiness and consists of a mode behave well or poorly in respect of the pasión. To Aristotle happiness ideal corresponding to the contemplative activity according to the rational nature of man.
Platon
Double Rejection / Palton rechazaba 2corrientes: the fisiologos (naturalistas) criticaba its naturalismo against them and try to prove sofistas criticaba k relativismo.platon the whole nature is matter reaches the truth is possible yk yk is unique. Contrary Relativismo, Platon defiende el alma preexiste k cm and is common to all and unchanging God and can be comunmente conocido.considera MATEMATICAS as the model of it conocimiento.todo k existe en el mundo a physical representation of another reality different, the the world of the ideas
Theory of the ideas / / For the Platon knowledge is intuitive and it will get to know are the k word ideas.la idea has 2sentidos, k familiar event of the Mind (idea subjetiva) and the object in K is known (objective idea). / The Features include: unchanging God, unique, independent and not belonging to the world ideas etertna.las vemos k (sensitive). imitan sensitive ideas it all ls k son.las ideas are the ideas of the model things in the world are located sensible.las k things in the world are not sensitive propiamiente reality, the only way to have an idea of idea.los beings participan in various degrees, k tengan things in common is something of participan XK 1misma idea.las ideas are the essence of the authenticated k cosas.lo sensitive bridges the world with the world intelligible, it will be the real participación.el the idea. The world of the idea is so jerarkizado.en cierta 1s ideas participan of otras.paricipacion = comunicación.esta jerarquización culminates in the supreme idea, the idea of bien.bien is ekibalente by sorting is a principle of Rationality, 1cosa is fine when se realizan todas las funciones K are subject to its OWN fines.idea of justiceCia = Antropologia.influen Socratic Platon. / Socrates prentendia 1etica scientific, based indeed universales necesarias.su thinking and ethics are called intellectualism x coincide forbidden and make the good, wisdom and virtud.socrates has two procedures: mayeutica ironia.cn irony and release the counterpart of its opinions and Prejudice free, k to take conscience of their ignorancia.mayeutica: Questions from the sack is Light Concepts exactos k estaban las ideas in presuponen alma.se innatas, Knowledge consists descubrirlas.el intelectualimo ethical wisdom = virtue.
Knowledge / consists recordadr or reactualizar, anamnesis.nuestra immortal soul, body and preexiste to puestok at home in the world of ideas, can mediante la ayuda de los datos sensory recall 1conocimiento k ya poseia.grados of knowledge: Doxa ( User Input) Epistemo (science).
Dualist theory about man / Comprising of 2realidads Distintas, body and soul, time and k accidentalmente should unite among si.el soul is not= nothing material.es the guiding principle of the matter humana.cosa cn intelligence, principipio automovimiento.es of spiritual and immortal, part of the nature of the body ideas.el be corrompe with Death (Destruction of the body), the soul transmigrate eternamente en los cuerpos. Types of soul: rational, irascible (passion) and apetitiva (concupiscible, sentimientos). Situan be on the forefront, and Pech vientre.las 2ultimas kedan subordinadas k 1 has the power to gobernarlas.
Ethics and politics / ethics: moral eudemonista.la Riot x is the well supreme happiness, 1especial state of the soul, is ACHIEVE with harmonious development of personality, perfectly reaches the soul with the exercise of the soul virtud.a 3funciones le corresponden3virtudes: wisdom, justice sintetiza las3.la templanza.la fortress and perfection is only in sociedad.el ACHIEVE is the only state to secure the CAPAZ justicia.sociedad structured downes, guerreros, artesanos.para avoid nepotismo, the superior 2clases not having an propiedades privadas.matrimonio monogamous pair of private property and only for craftsmendue to its lower intellectual development, they fear muvivan solamete incentivos materiales.el Governor debera prevent literatuta k nourishing theater or vagueness of the Citizenship and care of the teachings of the niños.ambos sexos must be having all the same rights and receive educación.todo the same is submitted to the Government is degeneración.la way idonea the monarkia, the Government of 1solo the CAPAZ but if several are among the best (Aristos) aristocracia.la degeneration of government is democracy, x mas k Oñoro governed by the knowledge k can dejenerar in obligarkia governed x rikeza.cuanto the eagerness of more importance is the rikza gives himself gives to lavirtud, these leads to democracy, the triumph of the Riko on the poor, the crisis leads to demagoguery and autoriedad
San Agustin
Philosophy / / The only happiness is possible in the way sobrenatural.el plano partiendo is the soul of interioridad k asciende progresivamente to Ser Supremo.SAcristianiza philosophy platonica.fe y Razón complementan.sa is: faith is the guide and the pattern of the reason, the rational guideth research into the man of faith
Knowledge / / Dios Fundamenta ace and the possible human knowledge, it universal and necessary, Truths eternas.para SAel knowledge 1visión is possible thanks to the iluminadora acción de Dios para k pueda intelligence on the Truth Eternas k surplus reaches its contingency and finiteness. the natural light of the reason proceeds from God and trains the mind to contemplate the Truth and universales necesarias.dios and unchanging God is eternal, x eso open for access to our mind is the capacity of the natural lighting ideas.esta k dios dado us .
God and the creation / Facts 1.la mind possesses inmutables.ai conocimientos k is the imposing man in SER.si fundarse k must be inclusive and universales conocimientos necesarios and none can be particularly its basis will be xk dios existe.2.la mesafisica essence of God is in the inmutabilidad.dios will be the sumamente perfecto.dios k change is impossible, it possesses all, is not static, it is prefecto.3.dios the basis of the ideas platonicas.el world has an intelligible I think the world teologico.dios basis upon the ideas and inmutables Eternas k previamente existed in the mind of creador.doctrina of ejemplariasmo.el be authentic is to be in God and in its ideas, the world contingente owes its existence and essence of the creator.
Man’s Problem / / The soul is a substance linked to accidentalmet theory hilemorfica of cuerpo.rechaza hombre.es dualista.el soul has its origin in 2etapas.traduccionismo: it imparts the Alamo to parents of sons at the time of generation. creacionismo: the man’s spiritual soul is created directly by dios.La structure of the image and soul EXPRESS semejanza to crearla of God, God is in the structure of the soul has interior.la 3facultades: memory and understanding Will = Father, Son and Spirit santo.
Tomas
Aristotelian Principles: distinction between substance and accident, hilemorfismo, power event, movement, 4causass, analogy, abstractions. Decline empiricist theory, 2intelectos of hombre.principios not Aristotelian: essence-existence distinction, beginning platonicos: causalidad and participation.
Needs and contingenciaen ontology tomista / / Part of the idea of God is unique k k created the world to explain the crackón.dios infinite and perfect and the creados contingent beings, be and is the finitos.dios consists existir.fe = razon.conclusion: 1.dios will be the pure simplemente2.los beings and not part of this ser3.los beings Forman adjetivos are no necesitan ser.la perfect unity of the whole multitudes be excluded. / contingency mode = existence of participatory beings participan them of being, the essence of their beings distinguish its contingent existence in God coinciden.los beings are composed of power (essence) event (stocks). causación the explicacion + coerente are the routes for this relación.las Bashan STse in causalidad: 1.1 º º causa3.ser necesario4.ser perfecto5.ser smart motor2.1
Structure of the reality created / / The jerarkia d> simplicidad.en the summit Los Angeles, or have material, cada1es a especie.depues, the men with the soul, Compuestos matter and form, essence and existence.
Descartes
-Theory of knowledge / / In Descartes distinguishes 3tipos of ideas: adventitious (rechazables x dudosas Proceeding of the senses), facticias (x rechazables be built from the mind of others) and innatas (the unique seguras). Everything k concibe the spirit is innate
-Filosofia.caracteristicas / Intuicionismo: Prejudice against the criticism, the reason is exigé k imponga their own and rights.
Its systems are not analogias develops both by the k DECLARE arbitrariedad of yo, but Xel ideal of rigor matemático
The philosophy is from the BUILD reason, the bank of theology
Reason, methods and / / A set of rational k telecommuting allowed them to distinguish real from reaching it’sa sin, falsehood and error
Rule: Evidence which requires not accept any k distinct and clear sea, evitandose the precititacion.tiene two parts: to discover what real prohibit such evidente. / One requirement: obtaining a pure mind and atenta.para Descartes intuition is all knowledge
Rule Analysis and synthesis of s: son la clave del Metodo, consists of the reduction in other complicadas MATTERS MOST simplesy after deductions rises through the knowledge. It must be breaking the Data mentales.asi problemas en la mente intuye Terminology them more simple and irreducible for relacionarlos, plunges into the deductions
Rule of enumerations: Descartes proposes a rule k cm grateful control of continuidad k between them must be having multiple steps of the deductions, the enumeration consists comprobaciones constants k and checks it will take you to deducir
– God / / The argument of Descartes to prove the existence of God is based on the principle of causalidad: dios k consists of infinite be the cause in us the idea of infinito.Dios = YO is entendido como una realidad sustancial k cumple the concept of substance (and afraid to be themselves if) God is infinite spiritual substance
– Physical and psychological / / The world / concibe matter as Descartes continues. It is a stretch sin limites, infinitamente divisible homogenea.descartes dimensional and fully explains the movement of the universe as: God is in charge of the initial Impulso Dar el k pone en movimiento matter and maintains the physical cte.su is based on the principle of inertia / / The Man
Divide the world of things finitas in two fields: cogitans nothing and nothing extensive, and Distintas separadas.concepción dualist of man, which is composed of the body and soul, and stretch thinking among United si.la tarea del alma las Pasiones were subjected the reason for the dictmen