Philosophical Contributions of Bacon, Galileo, Descartes, Hume, and Kant
The Philosophical Contributions of Bacon, Galileo, Descartes, Hume, and Kant
Francis Bacon was an English thinker and philosopher of science who argued that humanity could dominate nature through science, emphasizing its utilitarian value. He disagreed with Aristotle’s view of science as contemplation, asserting that understanding reality allows for its modification, encapsulated in the motto “knowledge is power.” Bacon developed the deductive-inductive method, a two-stage process involving the acquisition of knowledge about natural laws and phenomena through observation and experimentation. This approach was supplemented by Bacon’s theory of idols, which cautioned investigators to avoid human errors and prejudices.
Renaissance Science: Galileo’s Revolution
Renaissance science, exemplified by Galileo Galilei, was marked by two significant shifts: first, the fall of the Ptolemaic geocentric model of the universe and the rise of the heliocentric views of Copernicus and Kepler; and second, the mathematization of reality. Galileo embraced the Copernican and Keplerian systems, integrating science and philosophy by advocating for a new method of investigating nature. This method focused on how phenomena occur rather than why, emphasizing mathematical formulation and quantification of qualitative aspects. Galileo’s approach was based on the assumption that the universe possesses a mathematical structure, allowing for indirect investigation through mathematical application. This new operative method involved:
- Observation of a phenomenon and analysis of its essential, quantifiable properties.
- Formulation of a hypothesis and deduction of its consequences.
- Verification of the hypothesis through experimentation.
Descartes and the Method of Doubt
René Descartes employed doubt as a method to arrive at indubitable truths. He posited that a single method could serve as the foundation for all reasoning. Descartes sought a new, unquestionable starting point by methodically doubting everything, including sensory perceptions, reason, and the distinction between dreams and waking life. His grounds for doubt included:
- The fallibility of the senses.
- Errors in reasoning.
- The confusion between dream and waking states.
- The possibility of an evil demon deceiving him.
The First Truth: Cogito, Ergo Sum
To overcome the danger of skepticism, Descartes sought an absolute, undoubted truth. He concluded that the act of thinking itself implied the existence of a thinking subject, leading to the famous assertion, “I think, therefore I am” (Cogito, ergo sum). This truth, perceived clearly and distinctly, became the criterion for all other certain knowledge: “Everything I clearly and distinctly perceive is true and can be affirmed with unwavering certainty.”
Hume’s Empiricism and Skepticism
David Hume‘s empiricism led him to skeptical conclusions regarding the nature of knowledge and reality. He argued that:
- Isolated impressions cannot justify causality.
- Real connections between isolated impressions cannot be established.
- The external reality of our impressions cannot be known.
- The self, as the subject of impressions, is unknowable.
Hume concluded that we only know our perceptions and impressions, leading to skepticism because of two conflicting principles: first, that all our impressions are distinct existences; and second, that the mind never perceives a real connection between different existences.
Kant’s Transcendental Idealism
Immanuel Kant addressed the conditions of knowledge through his transcendental idealism. He posited that our experience is shaped by both sensory data and the structure of our minds. According to Kant, we receive a plurality of amorphous data through our senses, which our minds then organize using a priori forms: space and time. These forms are prior to experience and are called “pure intuitions” because they are not concepts of the understanding. Space and time are transcendental conditions of sensory knowledge, making possible the experience of data as phenomena organized in space and time.