Philosophical Influences on Educational Practices
Educational philosophy examines the impact of philosophical thought on educational problems. Several key questions arise: Does human nature fundamentally differ from animal nature? Does death mark an end, or is it a gateway to new life? What is the relationship between individuals and the nation? Is the state inherently powerful? Is freedom a right or a privilege?
The diverse answers to these questions reveal a lack of consensus, reflected in opposing educational practices and systems. It’s crucial to distinguish between theories and their practical application. Some theories may be utopian, with practical experience revealing their limitations. A gap often exists between educational theory and practice. Educational systems, sometimes imposed by force, may be justified by philosophies that deny individual freedom. Many philosophers of education who develop extremist doctrines are not the first to implement them.
Practical pedagogues, drawing on a doctrine, may moderate its extremes, retaining only what is acceptable and advantageous. Here are some pedagogical implications of various philosophical constructs:
Naturalism
This doctrine posits that the difference between humans and animals is one of degree, not kind. Humans, simply more refined beings, are part of the natural world, a product of continuous development explained solely by natural factors. Positivism, evolutionism, and materialism are synonymous terms focusing on different aspects. The overall consequences of this theory are the emphasis on the study of nature, observation, and experimentation, with science replacing religion. In education, this translates to the principles that nature is the great educator and science education is the model for intellectual training. Physical development is paramount, as the perfection of the body determines the quality of intelligence.
Sociologism
This perspective prioritizes the community, asserting that individuals gain value only through social integration. The main consequence is the belief that humans are shaped by their social context. The community forms the basis of language, art, morality, science, and religion—everything that gives value to humanity. In education, sociologism emphasizes socialization as the primary objective, with the community serving as the ultimate educator, setting standards and educational levels.
Nationalism
Nationalism prioritizes the nation and state over the individual. It asserts that the nation gives value to individuals. Prominent in Germany, with proponents like Hegel and Bismarck, this ideology reached its extreme form in National Socialism. E. Krieck, a representative pedagogue of this radical nationalism and racism, considered the community (family, race, people) as a living entity, with race as the natural foundation. The practical consequences include strict socialization, nationalist ethics, exclusion of non-Aryans from education, development of imperialist tendencies, youth indoctrination, and suppression of opposition to the National Socialist ideal.
Italian Fascism
Inspired by similar principles, Italian Fascism, with philosopher Giovanni Gentile as its official voice, embraced spiritualism as a reaction against positivism. Catholicism was integrated into Italian nationalism. Fascism rejects individualism, asserting that outside the state, nothing human or spiritual holds value.
Reactionary Sociologism in France
The reactionary sociologism of Maurras in France also aligned with nationalism, with unavoidable pedagogical consequences. Education was to serve the nation, specifically the nation as it existed during the monarchy.
Christian Doctrine
The Christian doctrine of education is frequently referenced and underlies education in many countries. Both a philosophy and a religion, it emphasizes fundamental principles guiding human formation from a Catholic perspective. The Second Vatican Council reaffirmed these principles while acknowledging new requirements and perspectives arising from scientific progress, politics, international relations, human brotherhood, world peace, and economic and social development.
In summary, numerous educational doctrines cluster around philosophical systems that consider humans as either mere matter, pure spirit, or a duality of body and soul. The question of human nature and destiny must be addressed before considering human education.