Philosophical Perspectives on Humanism and Ethics
Sartre’s Humanism and Existentialism
Sartre’s humanism is rooted in existentialism, a philosophical tradition that emphasizes the absence of God and inherent meaning in life. This leads to the belief that life is absurd and humans are free but responsible for creating their own meaning and values. Key tenets include:
- No pre-defined human nature or objective moral standards.
- Humans are condemned to be free and must take charge of their lives.
- Human beings are conscious of their freedom and are open subjectivities.
Kant’s Enlightenment Philosophy
Immanuel Kant, influenced by the Enlightenment, believed in human progress through reason (anthropological optimism). He viewed humans as both natural beings subject to laws and as rational agents capable of intentional action. Kant’s philosophy centers around three key questions:
- What can I know? (Epistemology)
- What should I do? (Ethics)
- What can I hope for? (Metaphysics/Religion)
These questions culminate in the fundamental question: What is Man? (Philosophical Anthropology). Kant emphasizes treating humanity as an end in itself, not merely as a means to an end.
Anti-humanism
Anti-humanism challenges the core tenets of humanism by:
- Questioning the existence of a free and self-conscious human essence.
- Focusing on the processes that shape humans beyond their conscious will.
- Highlighting the unconscious as a more decisive factor in human subjectivity than consciousness (e.g., psychoanalysis).
Classical Contractarian Theories
Classical contractarian theories, like those of Hobbes and Locke, posit that:
- All humans are born free and equal.
- Laws should be universal and apply equally to all.
- Sovereignty resides in the people.
These theories distinguish between the State of Nature (pre-society) and the Civil State (organized society). The transition occurs through a social contract where individuals agree to create institutions and laws for stability and security.
Thomistic Christian Ethics
Thomas Aquinas’s ethics is teleological, aiming towards the ultimate good, which is God. Key principles include:
- Human actions should be oriented towards seeking God.
- Virtue leads to inner happiness and aligns with God’s will.
- The ultimate goal of humanity is happiness (eudaimonia) found in union with God.
Material Ethics: Eudaemonism and Hedonism
Eudaemonism (Theory of Happiness)
Sophists: Held a relativistic view of morality, denying universal moral standards.
Socrates: Believed in objective moral concepts accessible through reason (moral intellectualism). Knowledge of virtue is necessary for its practice, and wisdom is the path to happiness (eudaimonia).
Plato: Introduced the myth of Eros, a demigod mediating between the divine and human. Eudaimonia is achieved through possession by a “good demon” (divine inspiration) and is the ultimate reward of virtue.
Aristotle: All humans strive for happiness. He emphasized the process of achieving happiness through cultivating both intellectual virtues (wisdom, prudence) and ethical virtues (courage, temperance, modesty). Aristotle also recognized the importance of external goods (health, wealth, relationships) for achieving happiness.
Hedonism
Hedonism posits that pleasure is the ultimate good and the absence of pain is the goal. Epicureanism and Stoicism are two prominent schools of Hedonism.
Epicureanism
Epicurus identified three primary human fears: fate, death, and the gods. He believed that pleasure is achieved through the absence of pain, delusion, and anxiety (ataraxia). Epicureans emphasized moderate pleasures and the importance of friendship.
Stoicism
Stoicism, developed by figures like Seneca, emphasizes achieving self-sufficiency (autarky) and tranquility through rational control over emotions and passions. By accepting what we cannot control and focusing on virtue, Stoics aim to achieve serenity and inner peace.
Existentialism and Ethics
Existentialism rejects pre-determined moral objectives. Individuals are responsible for creating their own meaning and values in a meaningless universe. This freedom can be both liberating and anxiety-inducing, as individuals must confront the responsibility of choosing their own path and defining their own essence.