Philosophical Views of Humanity: Socrates to Aristotle
Conceptions of Humanity
Socrates was the first philosopher to attempt to objectively describe the human condition, including ethical concerns such as good and fairness. He argued that anyone accused in a trial could emerge victorious, even if guilty, but that it is wrong to do so if one knows they are guilty of the charges. Socrates distinguished between good and bad, but acknowledged the difficulty in defining them. The Sophists, particularly Protagoras, described the human condition subjectively. They were cosmopolitan citizens who worked in law schools and believed that “Man is the measure of all things.”
Influential Traditions
- Eastern: Influenced Western thought through figures like Pythagoras and Plato, who introduced a dualistic conception of humans as transcendent beings with an immortal soul, distinguishing them from the rest of nature.
- Greek: Predating Christianity, Greek philosophy, heavily influenced by Eastern thought and Plato, emphasized the idea of a human being distinct from other animals due to their natural and social connection to nature through language.
- Judeo-Christian: This tradition views humans as creatures of God, emphasizing the dual nature of humanity but highlighting the individual aspect of transcendence. Humans are linked to the divine, being made in “God’s image and likeness.” This perspective influenced early Christianity and the thought of the Middle Ages.
- Humanist: Emerging after the fragmentation of Christianity, Humanism incorporated elements from other traditions to provide a broader understanding of the mystery of humanity. It recognizes the natural and universal dignity of humans.
- Positivist: Also arising from the decline of Christianity, Positivism criticized traditional perspectives and, through scientific developments, introduced a new approach to analyzing human reality. Humans are seen as beings within nature, explainable from a scientific standpoint.
Medieval and Platonic Dualism
Despite differences between Greek and medieval philosophies, common ground can be found in their basic conception of humanity. Humans are seen as intermediate beings, situated between the divine and the animalistic, composed of both the divine (soul) and the material (body). The body is considered subordinate to the soul, which is incorporeal and immortal, a principle radically opposed to the body, except in the philosophies of Aristotle and the Hellenistic period.
Platonic dualism, as the name suggests, was conceived by Plato. It describes the relationship between soul and body. Influenced by Eastern thought, Plato believed the body and soul are separate entities, with the body being lifeless and unintelligent without the soul. The body is a burden the soul must carry, but the soul can exist independently of the body, being freed upon the body’s death.
Conceptions of Aristotle and Plato
Plato viewed the human as a combination of soul and body, distinct but united entities. He considered the body a prison or weight from which the soul must be released.
Aristotle, in contrast, saw humans as an inseparable unity of body and soul. He argued that the soul cannot exist without the body, and vice versa, as they are mutually dependent. The human is a compound being, and there is no soul without a body. Aristotle also recognized another essential element in humans: their sociability. He considered humans to be “political animals,” naturally inclined to live in communities. Contrary to the Sophists, Aristotle believed that the community of the polis is not a conventional or arbitrary construct but a natural reality, like any biological organism or social aggregate among animals. He explained that human sociability is rooted in their rational and dialogical nature.
Individual vs. Citizen
- Individual: A person without rights granted by the state.
- Citizen: A person who belongs to the state and possesses rights.