Plato and Aristotle: Soul, Knowledge, and Human Nature
Plato’s Anthropology
Human beings consist of two parts:
- The body, belonging to the sensible world
- The soul, belonging to the ideal world
Characteristics of the Soul
The soul is immortal. When the body dies, the soul is reincarnated into another body. Staying in our world allows the conception of true knowledge as compared to reminiscence. Plato uses the analogy of a winged chariot to describe the soul:
- The charioteer represents the rational soul, associated with wisdom.
- The white horse represents the spirited soul, associated with bravery and courage.
- The black horse represents the appetitive soul, associated with temperance.
The goal of each type of soul varies:
- Rational soul (rulers and philosophers): seeks knowledge.
- Spirited soul (warriors): seeks success and fame.
- Appetitive soul (producers): seeks material gain.
Relationship Between Soul and Body
The body and soul are united accidentally. The body is the prison of the soul. To escape, the soul must reach knowledge. This forces man to go from the sensible to the intelligible. Death is a release for the soul. When the body dies, the soul is reincarnated into another. The number of souls is finite, as is the world of ideas (which is why it is perfect). There is no finite body, so souls must reincarnate. Depending on how one lives, reincarnation can be better or worse. The best reincarnation is as a philosopher, the worst as an animal. When the soul is purified of everything, it no longer needs to reincarnate.
Knowledge in Aristotle
Unlike Plato, for whom knowledge is only a reminder of the reality provided by the soul, Aristotle does not admit the prior existence of the soul. He bases his explanation on the data provided to us by the senses. Aristotle said that nothing is in the understanding that was not previously known by the senses. There are different levels of knowledge:
- Sensation: This is the lowest level, characteristic of animals and of man as an animal. Not all animals are on the same level; some also have sensitive memory (this comes from the memory of particular sensations) and imagination (extension of perception), while consistent voluntary recall is peculiar to man alone. From memory arises experience in man (rational coordination of sensations) as a precursor to science and art (understood as the ability to not only comprehend).
- Imagination: This plays a role in human knowledge. By allowing the mental reproduction of objects in the absence of claims, it enables the work of understanding (the ability to think and judge, the upper level of knowledge), which is what allows science.
Aristotle distinguishes two principles in the intellective operation of the soul:
- Active intellect: This is immortal and eternal. It abstracts the forms of things from these pictures, and when received in the passive intellect, they become universal concepts of science.
- Passive intellect: This is corruptible and mortal.
When implementing hylomorphism in the problem of knowledge, Aristotle uses the intellect, which is immortal and eternal, unlike the passive intellect, which is corruptible and mortal. For Aristotle, there are two parts of the soul: rational and irrational. The Aristotelian theory of the soul is contradicted in its fourth quarter. Aristotle departs from Plato and sees the soul as being of the same nature as the body. The interpretation is that Aristotle said that the soul penetrated the body from outside and that it was created at the same time.
Aristotle’s Anthropology
Aristotle tries to explain the difference between living things and inert things. Living things have a soul, and inert things are animated. The soul is what gives life. There are three classes of living things:
- Plants: They can feed, grow, and reproduce. This is the vegetative soul.
- Animals: They can also feel and move. This is the sensitive soul.
- Humans: They can talk, think, and live in society. This is the rational soul.
The soul is the form or essence of beings. Hylomorphism implies a new conception of man: body and soul are substantially united. Our rational soul makes us alive, and thinking is what makes us human. The substantial union of body and soul causes the problem that occurs after death.