Plato’s Philosophy: Ideas, Soul, and Political Theory
Plato’s Life and Historical Context
Plato was born in Athens to an aristocratic family. His life spanned the 4th century BC. Initially oriented toward poetry and politics, his path changed upon meeting Socrates. Plato lived during a pivotal historical moment: democratic Athens’ defeat in the Peloponnesian War by Sparta and the subsequent introduction of an oligarchic government in Athens. Years later, democracy was restored, but it was responsible for Socrates’ death. Disillusioned, Plato left politics to dedicate himself to philosophy. After his friend’s death, he traveled extensively, including to Sicily, where he met Dion, brother of the tyrant Dionysius. His attempt to implement his political philosophy there led to his enslavement, but he was rescued and returned to Athens. There, he founded the Academy, a school of philosophy that would endure for over 900 years. He spent the rest of his life theorizing.
His works, written in dialogue form, are interspersed with examples and myths. Socrates is often the central character, alongside other figures of his time. Plato’s work can be divided into several stages, with the most important being his maturity phase, exemplified by The Republic.
Although Sparta held political power, Greek culture remained centered in Athens. Plato and Isocrates represented the intellectual hegemony of the time. In poetry, Euripides highlighted the tragic, while on the comic stage, the playwright Aristophanes continued the tradition of burlesque theater.
Influences on Plato
Plato was influenced by several schools of thought:
- The Sophists: Plato adopted their characteristics of sensitive knowledge (mutable and subject to agreement). The Sophists were professional teachers who rivaled Socrates because they profited from teaching. They embraced a practical philosophy focused on human beings, language, religion, law, and rhetoric.
- Socrates: From Socrates, Plato inherited the desire to know the truth, the intellectual characteristics of knowledge, and the foundations of the Platonic dialectic (maieutics), a logical sequence of questions and answers leading to information. Socrates was a democrat who sought to improve democracy through education.
For Socrates, it was crucial to free man from ignorance. To achieve this, one must show what things truly are and make them good (virtuous). He also introduced the theory of reason of state to prevent the wise from suffering injustice and promoted the development of the soul, a concept later developed by Plato and the Pythagoreans in opposition to rhetoric. What was a definition for Socrates became an idea for Plato.
Plato’s Theory of Ideas
All of Plato’s philosophy revolves around the Theory of Ideas, a dualistic and pluralistic doctrine. Ideas are intelligible essences, the very things that make something what it is. These essences are separate from particular things; they are entities with real and independent existence. Ideas are the true objects of thought. From this knowledge, sentient beings can be grasped by understanding and receive their names.
The Two Worlds
This theory implies a doubling of the world. On one side is the sensible world of particular things, and on the other, the intelligible world of Ideas, separated from each other. The visible world is fleeting, dominated by constant change, where things are multiple, temporal, and mutable. The intelligible world is the truly real world. Ideas are unique, eternal, and immutable, known by intelligence.
The theory initially had a political purpose: rulers should be philosophers guided by absolute and transcendent ideals (Ideas), not by personal ambition. Later, it acquired a scientific intent.
Both worlds are related, according to the theory of participation. Ideas are paradigms of the things in the sensible world, which are more or less real to the extent that they participate in that Idea.
Plato’s Conception of Man and Soul
Plato’s conception of man is dualistic. The human being is composed of two elements accidentally joined: soul and body. The preeminence of the soul over the body led him to assert that man is his soul. The soul is a reality somewhere between the two worlds and moves between them.
For Plato, the soul is immortal. Its essential state is to be united with the body, but this is an accidental, transient state that can be described as unnatural because the soul’s true place is the world of Ideas. While attached to the body, the soul must be purified, preparing for the contemplation of Ideas. It is in a state of impurity because of the body’s needs. The soul is liberated through education because it is released from the mortal (body). For Plato, this is the real life of the soul. The soul is harmony.
The Tripartite Soul
Plato divides the soul into three parts:
- Rational Soul: Immortal, possessing intelligence, and located in the brain.
- Irascible Soul: The source of noble passions, located in the chest.
- Appetitive Soul: The source of ignoble passions, located in the abdomen.
The rational soul is created by the Demiurge and is therefore immortal and capable of contemplating the Ideas.
Plato’s philosophy is a preparation for death, achieving the separation of the soul from the body (which is a hindrance) to contemplate the Ideas directly. Plato accepted the Pythagorean doctrine of successive reincarnations of the soul. After the body’s death, the soul, once released, will ascend to the world of Ideas.
Theory of Reminiscence
Plato explained how we know through his theory of recollection or reminiscence. This means that the soul seeks what it already knew in a past life but has forgotten. To know is to remember. As sentient beings imitate Ideas, this knowledge should serve as a reminder of the prior knowledge of the Ideas.
Dialectics
Dialectics (the ascent to Ideas, to reality) recognizes that the world of Ideas is hierarchical. The supreme Idea, the Idea of the Good, is the first principle and the source of the intelligibility and truthfulness of other Ideas. After reaching knowledge of the Good, the dialectician begins the opposite path.
Virtue and Justice
The original intention of the Theory of Ideas was ethical and political. Plato’s thought focused on justice, which he considered the principal political virtue. Virtue is wisdom; knowing the good means being good. It is also harmony between the different parts of the soul. There are four different types of virtue corresponding to the parts of the soul:
- Prudence: Enables one to choose the best option. It corresponds to the rational part of the soul.
- Fortitude: Allows one to undertake difficult actions and endure pain. It corresponds to the irascible part of the soul.
- Temperance or Moderation: Regulates sensitive pleasures. It corresponds to the appetitive part of the soul.
- Justice: Harmony between the various parts of the soul.
Justice can be attributed to both individuals and states. In states, three needs must be covered: economic, defense, and government. Each must be served by a different type of individual:
- Producers: Meeting immediate needs.
- Guardians: Defending the state from internal unrest and external aggression.
- Rulers: Selected from among the best military and receiving special preparation.
Political Theory and Education
Plato’s political theory revolves around the principle of correspondence between the structure of the state and the soul and the principle of functional specialization. Depending on which part of the soul prevails, each individual should perform the function for which they are best prepared. Prudence is assigned to the rulers, courage to the guardians, moderation to all three classes, and justice to the perfect operation of the principle of functional specialization.
Education is responsible for identifying which part of the soul prevails in each individual to assign them a function. The goal of education is to develop the natural abilities that each person possesses and should be in the hands of the state. In the early stages of the education system, individuals are instructed in gymnastics for the development of the body and in art for the development of the soul. In the second stage, from age 20, the best soldiers gain access and are trained in philosophy, dialectics, and mathematics.
System of Government
The system of government that Plato considered appropriate is a cyclical one, which alternates between monarchy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, and tyranny. As for family and property, he proposes a restricted community for guardians and rulers. They should not have possessions that lead them to be guided by appetite.