Plato’s Philosophy: Knowledge, Soul, and Society
Degrees of Knowledge: The Line Simile
In Plato’s epistemological dualism, there are two main grades of knowledge. The sensible world, perceived through the senses, yields only opinion, not true knowledge, as these are mere appearances. True knowledge can only be attained of the intelligible world through reason, because it is immutable and eternal. Knowledge is relative when based on things with little reality, but it is absolute when dealing with what is fully real: Ideas. The objects of concern are real, but are they reliable and truthful?
The Problem of Man: The Doctrine of Soma-Sema
Plato’s conception of human beings reflects the influence of Orphic-Pythagorean doctrines and, thus, anthropological dualism. He attempts to illustrate human complexity through the myth of the winged chariot.
Anthropology: The Dualistic Conception of Man
Body and soul are different in nature, and their union is purely accidental and transitory. The body is material and mortal. The soul is immortal and immaterial because it originates in the world of Ideas.
Metempsychosis Theory
- Soma-sema doctrine: The body is a prison for the soul. The myth of the winged chariot describes how the soul lives in the world of Ideas, comparing it to a chariot driven by a charioteer. The charioteer must control two horses to remain in the world of Ideas. The horses’ education and the size of the wings, which grow with knowledge, determine the soul’s fate and the type of life it will embody.
- Reincarnation and transmigration of souls: When the body dies, the soul returns to the world of Ideas until it is reincarnated in another body.
- Purification, moral virtue, and intellectual knowledge: The cycle of reincarnations can be broken by dedicating ourselves to genuine knowledge of reality. A good life leads to the world of Ideas after death, while a bad life leads to wandering in Hades before reincarnation. Plato describes this process in the Republic through the myth of Er.
The connection between knowledge and virtue explains how to break the cycle of reincarnation. Life becomes a long process of intellectual and moral development. This is why Plato stated that philosophy is a preparation for death.
The Problem of Moral Virtue: Theory
Each aspect of the soul has its own function, and virtue is its proper implementation within the whole.
- The rational aspect corresponds with prudence and wisdom (sophia).
- The irascible aspect corresponds to strength and courage (andreia).
- The concupiscible aspect corresponds to moderation and temperance (sophrosyne).
The just soul is one where the rational aspect leads and dominates the other aspects, respecting the hierarchy of functions, with each part fulfilling its role. Happiness (eudaimonia) of the individual appears as a natural result of respecting this order—the harmony arising from the balance between different aspects.
The Origin of Society and Politics
Society is based on the fact that human beings have a range of basic needs that they cannot meet individually; therefore, we live in society. Politics emerges from the attempt to organize collective efforts.
Social Division of Labor: Individual and Society
Plato’s analogy is not egalitarian; he believes that each human being is naturally better suited for a specific function (the principle of natural suitability). Individuals should specialize in tasks for which they demonstrate greater natural aptitude.
- Class of farmers, artisans, and traders: These individuals are dominated by the concupiscible aspect.
- Class of guardians and warriors: These individuals are dominated by the irascible aspect.
- Class of rulers: These are the best individuals, dominated by the rational aspect. Among them will be the philosopher-king, who possesses the virtue of wisdom and is prepared to rule the polis.
This education must be equal for men and women, as both can perform the same social functions without distinction. Plato advocates for abolishing private property and family within the ruling class to avoid problems.