Plato’s Philosophy: Soul, Ideas, and Political Theory
The Soul
Plato distinguishes between the body (soma) and the soul (psyche). Just as the intelligible world is the real and true world, the soul is the real and true essence of a human being. In essence, the individual is the soul. Plato proposes a tripartite division of the soul:
- Intelligible
- Irascible
- Concupiscible
Plato argues for the eternity and immortality of the soul and the possibility of reincarnation. The body is a prison for the soul, a hindrance that drags it down with passions, preventing it from contemplating the Ideas. Therefore, the best thing that can happen to a philosopher is death, and philosophy is nothing but a “preparation for death.” The soul is the human essence, the principle and foundation of human knowledge, belonging to the world of Ideas.
In Plato’s theory, there are cardinal virtues. According to Platonic doctrine, each part of the soul corresponds to a virtue:
- The virtue of the rational part is prudence.
- The virtue of the irascible part is fortitude.
- The virtue of the concupiscible part is temperance or moderation.
The most important virtue of all is justice, which arises when each part of the soul fulfills its proper function.
The Theory of Ideas
Plato (427-347 BCE) posits a fundamental duality, both ontological and epistemological. There are two completely different ontological orders, and consequently, two completely different epistemological orders:
- The kosmos noetos, or intelligible world
- The kosmos aisthetos or horatos, or sensible/visible world
The intelligible world consists of eidetic essences, or Ideas. Ideas are essences – that is, what makes a thing what it is, the very determination of everything. For example, the Idea of Beauty is that by which things are beautiful. The sensible world, in contrast, is changeable, the place of birth and corruption, of becoming; it is the world of contingency, unlike the unchanging Ideas.
Ideas are transcendent; they are separate substances from the sensory objects we perceive. They are entities with real and independent existence. Each Idea is a “substance” (ousia) that exists in itself as a transcendent reality, not inherent to things. This theory implies an ontological doubling. Each Idea is unique, eternal, immutable, atopic, and without a specific time. These realities are not corporeal and cannot be known through sense perception. They can only be known through intelligence or intellectual intuition.
Plato’s Political Theory
Plato’s political theory is intimately linked with his theory of the soul and represents the most profound motivation for his dedication to philosophy. This theory is expounded in The Republic, The Statesman, and Laws.
Just as there are three parts of the soul, there are three types of individuals:
- Philosophers (Gold): Represent the educator and leader class. Their virtue is prudence. They are equivalent to the rational part of the soul.
- Guardians (Silver): Their mission is to defend the city and assist the rulers. Their virtue is fortitude, and they are equivalent to the irascible part of the soul.
- Manual Workers (Iron): They are responsible for meeting the basic needs of the city’s inhabitants. Their virtue is temperance, and they are equivalent to the concupiscible part of the soul.
When each of these sectors of the city fulfills its function, the virtue of justice is achieved, which is the synthesis and culmination of all other virtues.