Poland’s Language, Italy’s Fragmentation, and 19th Century Europe
The Role of Language in Poland
At the end of the 18th century, Poland was partitioned by the Great Powers: Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Even though Poland no longer existed as an independent country, national feelings were kept alive through the language.
- The emphasis on language was made not just to recover an ancient national spirit but to carry the modern nationalist message to large audiences who were mostly illiterate.
- After the Russian occupation of Poland, the Polish language was forced out of schools, and the Russian language was imposed everywhere.
- Many members of the clergy in Poland began to use language as a weapon of national resistance.
- Polish was used for church gatherings and all religious instructions.
- The use of Polish thus came to be seen as a symbol of struggle against Russian dominance.
Political Fragmentation of Italy
Like Germany, Italy, too, had a long history of political fragmentation. Italians were scattered over several dynastic states as well as the multinational Habsburg Empire. During the middle of the 19th century, Italy was divided into several states, of which only one, Sardinia-Piedmont, was ruled by an Italian princely house. The north was under Austrian Habsburgs, the center was ruled by the Pope, and the southern regions were under the domination of the Bourbon kings of Spain. Even the Italian language had not acquired one common form, and it still had many regional and local variations.
The Defeat of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna
Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Britain defeated Napoleon. Conservatives wanted the monarchy and the church restored. Young Italy was a secret society formed by Giuseppe Mazzini to establish a unitary Italian republic. Britain, France, and Russia were present at the Vienna Congress of 1815. Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich hosted the Congress of Vienna. Johann Gottfried Herder was a German philosopher who claimed that true German culture was to be discovered through folk songs, poetry, and dances. Otto von Bismarck was the true architect of Germany who played an important role in the unification of Germany, following a policy of blood and iron. A nation-state is one in which the majority of citizens come together to develop a sense of common identity and shared history of descent. The unification of Italy involved Giuseppe Mazzini, Garibaldi, and Count Camillo Benso di Cavour. The Prussian Zollverein abolished tariff barriers. Prussian King William I became emperor after German unification. The Act of Union 1707 was signed between England and Scotland, as a result of which the United Kingdom of Great Britain came into being. England could now impose its influence on Scotland. The Napoleonic Code brought simplification of administrative divisions, improvement in transport and communication systems, removal of guild restrictions, standardization of weights and measures, and introduction of a common currency. The right to property was also secured.
The Silesian Weavers’ Revolt of 1845
In 1845, the Silesian weavers revolted against contractors who supplied them raw material and gave them orders for finished textiles but drastically reduced their payments. Dissatisfied and resentful weavers emerged from their homes on June 4th and marched in pairs up to the mansion of their contractor demanding higher wages. When the contractor showed reluctance, a group of them forced their way into the house, smashed his elegant window panes, furniture, porcelain, etc. Another group broke into the storehouse and plundered it of supplies of cloth, which they tore to shreds. The contractor fled with his family to a neighboring village, which ultimately refused to shelter such a person. He returned 24 hours later, having requisitioned the army. In the exchange that followed, 11 weavers were shot.