Political Freedom, Equality, and Liberalism
Political Freedom
Topic 13: Political Freedom. For Spinoza, freedom was perfect rationality. For Leibniz, it was the spontaneity of intelligence. For Hegel, it was the acceptance of necessity. However, all of these conceptions refer to an individual’s internal freedom, within the *hominis*. Political freedom, in contrast, is about coexisting with the freedom of others and represents a lack of external resistance. This distinction between inner and outer freedom is crucial. In the philosophy of freedom, we deal with both internal and external aspects. The definition of political freedom that best aligns with this concept is Hobbes’: “Freedom signifies the actual absence of external impediments.”
Political freedom ultimately serves to protect the citizen from oppression. But how? Locke, in the seventeenth century, stated, “Where there is no law, there is no freedom.” Rousseau further clarified this by stating, “When the law is subject to men…” Why? Because if laws govern, they are general and impersonal, unlike men. It’s true that the law sometimes forbids us, but it always applies equally. (It’s important to note that it also restrains the powerful, those who might otherwise make their own laws.) Political freedom is, *a priori*, a defensive freedom, a freedom *from*, which was later consolidated to include freedom *to*. The freedom *to* cannot override the freedoms *from*.
Equality
Topic 14: Equality. Einstein said that politics is more difficult than mathematics. Equality is a concept with two sides: identity and justice. Aristotle stated, “Injustice is inequality; justice is equality.” He also described two types of equality: numerical (the same for all) and proportional (the same for those who are alike). The most important type of equality today is equality of opportunity, which also has two aspects:
- Equal opportunities are given for equal access, requiring equal skills for equal rewards (e.g., career advancement).
- Equal starting points are provided by eliminating barriers to equal access.
To have freedom, it’s essential to understand that everyone is subject to the same laws. We are bound together as equals.
Economic and Political Liberalism
Topic 15: Economic Liberalism and Political Liberalism. The term “liberal” first appeared around 1810-11, referring to those who opposed the Napoleonic conquest. It began to circulate in France (*libéraux*), but the term initially created distrust because it was associated with the Spanish rebels. The word gained respect in nineteenth-century England. However, the term’s association with revolution made it less than ideal.
Political liberalism became conflated with economic liberalism (due to the concurrent Industrial Revolution). It was labeled as bourgeois and capitalist, earning the hostility of the industrial proletariat. The term “political liberalism” had the misfortune of emerging during this specific period.
How do we know that economic liberalism is not the same as political liberalism? Because prominent figures of political liberalism, such as Locke, Coke, Montesquieu, and Constant, were primarily constitutional theorists with little knowledge of economics. In some countries, like Germany, the word “liberalism” appeared when the concept had already fallen out of favor. In the United States, for example, “liberalism” never fully took hold as the nation transitioned from a republic to a democracy. In fact, the U.S. Constitution is a prototype of liberal constitutions.