Political Organization of Castile and Aragon
Castile
During the 14th and 15th centuries, royal authority in Castile strengthened at the expense of the nobility. This led to the dissemination of political theories based on Roman law, which defended the king’s absolute supremacy and established the doctrine of the king as the rightful ruler of his subjects.
Main institutions of statehood:
- The Courts: Officially merged in Castile and Leon in 1188, the Courts represented the nobility, the clergy, and some cities. Convened by the king, their primary function was to approve special taxes or services. They did not have legislative power.
- The Royal Council (1385): A technical body that advised the king on various matters. It comprised clergy, nobility, and legal experts.
- The Audience (1371): Established as a supreme court of justice, it was entirely dependent on the monarch and had jurisdiction throughout the kingdom.
Monarchical intervention extended to local councils, with the disappearance of open councils and the rise of the alderman and mayor figures.
Crown of Aragon
The Crown of Aragon’s political structure differed from Castile in two key aspects:
- It was a confederation of territories (Catalonia, Aragon, and Valencia), each with its own laws and institutions.
- The relationship between rulers and ruled was based on a covenant between the feudal lord and his vassals.
Aragonese institutions exerted strong control, hindering any attempts at an absolutist monarchy. This is reflected in the following:
- The Viceroyalties: In territories where the king did not reside, royal authority was represented by deputies or viceroys, often members of the royal family.
- The Courts: Served as a counterweight to the king’s authority. Separate courts existed in Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia, each with legislative function and a key role in limiting royal power.
- The Provincial: Responsible for implementing decisions made in Parliament.
- The Justice of Aragon: A member of the nobility appointed by the courts, tasked with defending the interpretation and privileges of Aragon.
Municipalities in the Crown of Aragon gradually fell under the control of urban oligarchies, with the municipal council gaining strength.
Italian and North African Foreign Policy
Italian Policy
Ferdinand led the Italian political issue, which was primarily an Aragonese matter. Spain and France clashed in Italy, defending their respective interests. The conflict arose when the French occupied Naples. Ferdinand created the Holy League, allied with Italian cities, to isolate France. France surrendered, but fighting continued. In 1599, the French counter-attacked but were defeated by the Duke of Alba at Cerignola and Garellano. Naples was definitively incorporated into Aragon.
North African Policy
North African policy involved both Castile and Aragon. The return of Muslims to Africa after the fall of Granada and the occupation of Melilla fueled anti-Christian sentiment and the rise of Barbary pirates, who attacked the Castilian economy.
The Spanish occupied Vélez de la Gomera, Oran, and Bojio, but suffered a major defeat at Djerba, hindering expansion into North Africa.
Conquest of the Nazari Kingdom and Incorporation of Navarre
The Kingdom of Granada was the only Muslim kingdom remaining in the Iberian Peninsula in the 15th century. It faced internal struggles for power and paid tribute to Castile. In 1461, the Catholic Monarchs took Zahara, marking the beginning of the conquest.
The conquest had two phases: until 1486, it was a medieval war, with nobles conquering various strongholds. It then transitioned into a modern war with a permanent and organized army. The Catholic Monarchs finally conquered Granada in 1492. This victory marked the end of the Reconquista and the Islamic kingdom in Castile. From a strategic perspective, it changed warfare tactics.
In 1512, due to territorial disputes, the Duke of Alba was sent with an army to occupy Pamplona and Navarre, facing resistance. These territories were incorporated into Castile, with Aragon not retaining its own laws and institutions.
The Empire of Charles V: Internal Conflicts
Communities and Germanías
Upon the death of his grandfather Ferdinand in 1516, Charles of Habsburg, who had inherited the Burgundian territories, was crowned King of Castile and Aragon. The new monarch did not know Castilian and was accompanied by Flemish advisors who occupied important positions. Charles I called for new taxes, leading to immediate protests in Castile, reminding him of his obligation to reside in the kingdom and respect its laws.
Revolt of the Communities (1520)
Caused by disagreements between the courts and the monarch over increasing fiscal pressure, Castilian cities refused to pay more taxes. The Emperor’s troops and the nobility defeated the rebels in Villalar (1521).
Revolt of the Germanías (1519-1522)
A war between artisans and nobility for control of royal cities, it also involved a struggle between peasants and lords in rural areas. In 1522, the nobles, aided by Castilian troops, defeated the rebels.
The Hispanic Monarchy of Philip II: Iberian Unity
Philip II (1556-1598) inherited vast territories and focused on political expansion and the defense of Catholicism. He faced France (victory at San Quentin in 1557), the Turks (defeated at Lepanto in 1571), and England (defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588).
A major issue was the revolt in the Netherlands, where Calvinism spread in the northern provinces. Spanish intervention failed to prevent the division between the Protestant north and the Catholic south.
Domestically, the revolt of the Moriscos of Granada (1568-1571) and the limitation of Aragonese liberties with the execution of Juan de Lanuza, Chief Justice, stand out. Following the death of the Portuguese king Sebastian (1578) and his successor Cardinal Henry (1580), Philip II (son of Isabella of Portugal) claimed the throne and was recognized by the Courts of Tomar in 1581 after a brief struggle.
Philip II swore to uphold the charters, privileges, and customs of Portugal. This achieved peninsular unification and the inheritance of overseas territories, marking the Hispanic monarchy’s maximum extent. The king tried to appease his subjects, staying in Portugal for two years, maintaining its institutions, and favoring the nobility. However, in 1640, Portugal regained its independence.