Political Revolutions of 1776-1848: A Historical Overview
Theme 2: Political Revolutions (1776-1848)
1. The American Revolution
The Origins of the Conflict
In the 18th century, Britain held thirteen colonies in eastern North America. The American Revolution stemmed from conflict between these settlers and Great Britain, culminating in the colonies’ independence.
The conflict’s core was economic. Britain aimed to extract raw materials from North America. The colonies operated under the Colonial Pact, granting them considerable autonomy. While expected to pay taxes to Britain, they rarely did.
This led to conflict over taxation. Between 1764 and 1766, King George III attempted to regulate colonial taxes, met with protests and boycotts of British goods.
In 1773, the British government enacted the Tea Act, aiming to monopolize the tea trade, potentially ruining American merchants. Colonists, disguised as Indigenous people, attacked a British tea ship in Boston Harbor (Boston Tea Party). Britain responded by blockading Boston and revoking Massachusetts’ rights.
The War of Independence (1775-1783)
In 1774, representatives of the Thirteen Colonies convened the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia, drafting a declaration of rights and initiating armament. The British defeat at Lexington (1775) fueled the rebellion.
Thomas Jefferson penned the Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776), outlining principles of national sovereignty, separation of powers, and voting rights. This document served as the foundation for the Declaration of Independence, signed on July 4, 1776.
The colonists received military support from France and Spain. Key victories at Saratoga (1777) and Yorktown (1781) led to the Treaty of Paris (1783), where Britain recognized American independence.
The Legacy of the American Revolution
The Constitution of 1787 established the new political order. George Washington became the first U.S. president, leading the executive branch. Legislative power resided with Congress (House of Representatives and Senate), while the judiciary was vested in the courts, with the Supreme Court ensuring laws and government actions adhered to the Constitution.
2. The Outbreak of the French Revolution
The Situation in France Before the Revolution
In early 1789, France, a major power, operated under the Old Regime:
- A rigid estate system persisted.
- An economic crisis, ongoing since 1780, deepened, impacting basic commodity prices.
- A treasury deficit grew, exacerbated by expenses from the American War.
- A political crisis emerged as King Louis XVI lost popular support.
The Meeting of the Estates-General
Between 1783 and 1788, reforms were needed to tax the privileged classes. The king convened a meeting in 1787, but the privileged refused taxation. The king’s only recourse was to summon the Estates-General.
Before the meeting, each estate prepared cahiers de doléances (lists of grievances), outlining their proposals and problems. The Third Estate’s cahier revealed deep dissatisfaction with the Old Regime.
In spring 1789, the Estates-General met at Versailles.
The Beginning of the French Revolution
The nobility and clergy favored voting by estate. The Third Estate’s representatives declared themselves the National Assembly, claiming sole legitimacy to represent France.
Meeting in a nearby indoor tennis court, the National Assembly became the National Constituent Assembly. The king was forced to accept this revolutionary development.
On July 14, 1789, Parisians stormed the Bastille. The institutional and popular revolutions now ran parallel.
3. The Abolition of the Ancien Régime (1789-1792)
The Constituent Assembly’s decrees and the Constitution of 1791 dismantled the Old Regime.
The Work of the Constituent Assembly (1789-1791)
On August 4, 1789, feudal rights were abolished. On August 26, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was adopted. These acts marked the end of absolutism and the triumph of the liberal revolution.
The Constitution of 1791 established a constitutional monarchy, recognizing national sovereignty and fundamental rights. Powers were separated: legislative power to the National Assembly, executive power to the king, and judicial power to the courts. The Assembly was to be elected by census suffrage. Government was decentralized, dividing France into 83 departments and empowering municipalities.
The Legislative Assembly (1791-1792) and Opposition to Reforms
The Constitution of 1791 represented a victory for the propertied classes. Following its adoption, elections resulted in a moderate-dominated Assembly.
War Abroad and the End of the Monarchy
Fearing the revolution’s spread, Austria and Prussia declared war on France in April 1792. On August 10, 1792, the popular response was to storm the Tuileries Palace, ending the monarchy and establishing the Republic.
4. The Radicalization of the French Revolution
The Girondin Convention (1792-1793)
The Republic’s establishment ushered in a radical and popular phase. The National Convention was elected. Louis XVI was tried for treason and executed on January 21, 1793. This led to the First Coalition’s formation and a royalist and Catholic uprising in the Vendée region. To counter this, a Revolutionary Tribunal and the Committee of Public Safety were established.
The Montagnard Convention and the Reign of Terror (1793-1794)
Fear of the Revolution’s defeat led to a sans-culottes coup against the Girondins in June 1793. The Montagnards seized power. Robespierre instituted a dictatorship, suspending the constitution and enacting the Law of Suspects. Losing support, Robespierre’s attempted arrests triggered the Thermidorian Reaction, leading to his trial and execution.
The Directory and the End of the Revolution (1795-1799)
A moderate government drafted the Constitution of the Year III, establishing a liberal regime with census suffrage. Executive power was vested in a five-member Directory. Napoleon Bonaparte suppressed a royalist uprising in 1795. His Italian campaign in 1796 ended the First Coalition. The Second Coalition formed, renewing war in 1799.
5. The Napoleonic Empire
Napoleon’s Work in France
The Consulate became Napoleon’s personal rule. Victorious in Italy, he became Consul for Life. He modernized law with the Civil Code, reformed the economy by creating the Bank of France and the Commercial Code, and promoted public education.
Napoleon and Europe
Britain, Austria, and Russia formed the Third Coalition. Napoleon, supported by Spain, launched a new campaign. The Treaty of Tilsit marked the empire’s zenith. Napoleon’s continental blockade against Britain was accepted by all except Portugal, which he invaded in 1808, triggering the Peninsular War. Russia’s resumption of trade with Britain led to Napoleon’s invasion in 1812, ending in defeat. The Sixth Coalition defeated the French at Leipzig in 1813, coinciding with Napoleon’s defeat in Spain. Napoleon abdicated in April 1814, returned for one hundred days in 1815, and was defeated at Waterloo, exiled to St. Helena.
6. The Restoration
Napoleon’s defeat ushered in a conservative reaction: the Restoration.
The Return of Absolutism
Monarchs of the Old Regime returned to power, issuing charters. King Louis XVIII of France reigned after Napoleon’s fall.
The Congress of Vienna: Reorganizing the European Map
The Congress of Vienna reshaped Europe:
- France’s borders were restored to their pre-revolutionary state.
- Buffer states were strengthened to contain French expansion.
- Austria, Prussia, and Russia gained territory.
The Congress of Vienna initiated the Concert of Europe.
International Alliances Against Revolution
Two blocs emerged:
- The Holy Alliance: Prussia, Russia, Austria, and later France.
- The Quadruple Alliance: Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia.
7. A New Revolutionary Wave (1820-1848)
Liberalism and Nationalism
Revolutionary cycles in 1820, 1830, and 1848 were driven by liberalism and nationalism. Early 19th-century liberalism rejected absolutism and sought to restore rights and freedoms from the French Revolution. Nationalism arose from Napoleonic expansion. The French Revolution fueled liberalism.
The Revolutions of 1820 and 1830
1820 marked the first wave:
- Starting in Spain (1820), it ended with Holy Alliance intervention in 1823.
- Greece’s 1821 revolt against Turkish rule led to independence in 1828.
1830 brought the second wave:
- Centered in France, where Charles X attempted to revoke Louis XVIII’s charter.
- An uprising in Brussels against the Dutch king led to Belgian independence in 1831.
The Revolutions of 1848
The 1848 revolutions had a social and labor component. Beginning in France, Louis Philippe’s corrupt regime was overthrown in February, leading to the Second Republic. Louis Napoleon Bonaparte won the election, ending the Republic and proclaiming the Second Empire in 1852. Despite their failure, the 1848 revolutions ushered in a new political era.