Political Science Key Concepts and History
Political Science: Core Topics
1. Political Theory
- Political Theory
- History of Political Ideas
2. Political Institutions
- Constitutions
- Central Government
- Regional and Local Government
- Government Administration
- Economic and Social Functions of Government
- Comparative Political Institutions
3. Parties, Groups, and Public Opinion
- Political Parties
- Social Groups
- Citizen Participation in Government and Administration
- Public Opinion
4. International Relations
- International Politics
- International Policy and Organizations
- International Law
The scope of political science extends beyond state theory and encompasses a broader understanding of power dynamics.
The Importance of Ancient Greece
Political discourse originated in Greece, founded on the establishment of a true state and the principle of democracy—the first form of autonomy for a self-aware, free people. The Greek legacy emphasized the relationship between individuals and their community, establishing a moral order that shaped human interactions. This gave rise to the concept of the individual as a political entity, contributing to political theory and various forms of government, including democracy.
Polybius and the Cycle of Constitutions
Referencing Plato, Polybius presented a theory of cyclical constitutional succession. He argued that civilizations experience recurring disasters, leading to a predictable pattern: monarchy evolves into royalty, which degenerates into tyranny. Tyranny is overthrown by virtuous individuals who establish an aristocracy. This aristocracy eventually transforms into an oligarchy due to the excesses of later generations. Popular revolt then leads to democracy, which values equality and freedom. However, ambition and corruption can undermine democracy, leading to chaos and the eventual return to monarchy. Polybius identified three suitable forms of government: kingship, aristocracy, and democracy, each with its corresponding perversion (tyranny, oligarchy, and demagoguery).
Analyzing the Roman constitution, Polybius saw elements of kingship (consuls), aristocracy (Senate), and democracy (the people), all in a system of checks and balances. He warned of the dangers facing Rome, suggesting that its peak could lead to decline due to internal factors like excessive luxury and popular ambition.
Temporal and Spiritual Power
Christianity distinguished between temporal power (belonging to Caesar) and spiritual power (belonging to God). Historically, the relationship between state and spiritual power has taken several forms:
- Holiness (Sacral State): Medieval Christendom exemplified this model, where spiritual and temporal powers were intertwined. The spiritual permeated the temporal to such an extent that the temporal became an instrument of the spiritual, aligning religious and political common good.
- Secularism (Secular State): This acknowledges religious power and integrates the spiritual phenomenon within the political framework, adapting to specific circumstances.
- Secularism (Neutral State): This approach eliminates the spiritual from the political sphere, adopting an indifferent or agnostic stance regardless of social realities.
Montesquieu and the Separation of Powers
Baron de Montesquieu, a key figure of the French Enlightenment, articulated the principle of checks and balances in his work “The Spirit of Laws.” He modeled his theory on the English system, arguing that power tends to corrupt and requires division into distinct functions to prevent abuse. This concept became a cornerstone of modern constitutionalism.
The Political Right and the Rule of Law
The political right employed the concept of law to define the relationship between rulers and the ruled.
Rousseau and the Social Contract
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a prominent figure in the 1789 revolution, believed education was crucial for social and moral development, advocating for state control over education to shape citizens’ minds. Considered a utopian thinker, Rousseau’s masterpiece, “The Social Contract,” expressed the idea of the general will as the embodiment of universal reason, forming the basis of a civil religion.