Post-War Challenges of Major Powers: Germany, U.S., Britain, and France
Panorama of the Great Powers
Germany
The end of the war meant for Germany profound political and social upheaval. The Republic was proclaimed in 1918 and faced serious problems:
- Radicalization of positions: On the left wing, led by Spartacus, appeared Karl Liebknecht (1871-1919) and Rosa Luxemburg, the founders of the German Communist Party (KPD) in the same year. At the popular level, councils of workers and soldiers were established, supported by Spartacus, which were a copy of the Russian Soviets.
- Separatist movements in the Rhineland and Bavaria: The Social Democrats were in power and aspired to create a liberal democratic republic. With the help of the army, the government sought to quell the unrest. Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht were killed, and the workers’ councils were persecuted and repressed.
In 1919, after the abdication of the Kaiser the previous year, a constituent assembly met in Weimar (1918-1933) and from there arose the Weimar Constitution, which established a republican system halfway between presidentialism and parliamentarism.
The new republic was unable to reconcile the extreme positions and could not avoid the climate of revenge, facing the following issues:
- The Conservatives blamed the country’s problems on Marxists and Jews.
- The military, backed by conservatives, attempted a failed coup.
- The workers and middle classes were very unhappy with the economic difficulties they faced.
- The nationalists founded the German Workers’ Party, which was the origin of the Nazi Party.
- In 1923, France occupied the Ruhr area.
Since 1924, the German situation improved in terms of international relations. The Republic took a conservative turn under President Hindenburg and started a boom that was cut short by the 1929 crisis. The increasingly critical situation allowed for the rise of Adolf Hitler, who was considered a savior by many in the country.
U.S.:
The U.S. was enriched by the war, conquering new markets and developing industrial production and shipping. In 1914, there was a surplus of $435 million, and by 1917, it had risen to $3.567 million.
- The postwar crisis and the Republican triumph: After the war, the country faced a serious political crisis where dissatisfaction with Wilson was widespread. He was criticized for:
– Strengthening the executive branch
– Controlling production
– Providing exclusive support for his party
As in other countries, a resurgent labor movement and labor unions sought improvements. By 1920, Europe began its slow reconstruction, having paid off the debts from the war. Europe became increasingly self-sufficient, which caused a reduction in U.S. exports. Increased production led to stockpiling, the closing of many businesses, and rising unemployment. All these circumstances caused a shift in public sentiment, leading to a Republican victory in the presidential elections.
The Republican era is characterized by:
– Government support of high finance
– Government protectionism
– Immigration restrictions
– Companies uniting to fight closures and workers facing redundancy.
In short, the decade of the 1920s implemented a refined conservatism.
- The prosperity and failure: The U.S. economic progress is undeniable. American capitalism, after the crisis of 1920, sought to develop its domestic market with a policy of easy credit and high salaries that would increase the purchasing power of workers (Henry Ford). Mass production was imposed, lowering the prices of products and leading to large business concentrations (Trusts). However, the apparent and real prosperity concealed major faults in the system:
- Agriculture was depressed.
- Unemployment became an endemic problem.
- Finances were highly speculative until the crisis of 1929.
- Great social contrasts: racial minorities and immigrants were the victims.
- The ideology of the Republican era was characterized by dogmatism and puritanism. In this era, racist sentiments were revived, and the activities of the Ku Klux Klan resurfaced.
- The reaction to the crisis came in 1929 with the