Post-World War II Geopolitics: Conflicts, Reconstruction, and Dissidence
Economic Impact of World War II
World War II had a tremendous economic impact. States focused on production, science, and technology to serve the needs of the war. The prominent growth of the military-industrial complex led to a change in the organization of production and a substantial increase in manpower in warring countries, despite military recruitment. In Great Britain, the USA, and Japan, this meant the massive mobilization of women into the workforce. At the end of the conflict, the devastation was significant in Eastern Europe, where the looting of cities (Poland), the practice of scorched earth (USSR), and the destruction of villages and fields (Yugoslavia) led to a decline in production capacity. In Western Europe, cities and roads were the most affected. Japan had been on the brink of annihilation, with Tokyo and industrial centers destroyed. Countries that had territory outside the conflict, such as Canada, Australia, Sweden, and the USA, increased their wealth, especially the latter. The reconstruction of Europe seemed an almost impossible enterprise, but the partial preservation of industry in Britain and France was the starting point for economic development. State intervention in the economy and society in Europe was another key element that marked a change from the past and laid the foundations for the creation of the welfare state. The electoral victory of left-leaning parties in several countries further contributed to the recovery of economic life and the provision of healthcare needs.
Peace After the Conflict
The organization of peace involved conferences between the Allies from 1941 (Atlantic Charter). The most important were those held by the “Big Three” (USA, Great Britain, and the USSR) in December 1943 in Tehran and in Yalta in February 1945. Yalta marked the peak of collaboration between the Allies. Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill decided on the partition and denazification of Germany, and France joined the discussions. It was established to create a new international organization to secure peace: the United Nations Organization (UNO). The Potsdam Conference was the last held by the Big Three. They addressed the situation in Germany, which remained unified but under the supervision of the Allies. Berlin was divided into four zones with an inter-Allied government. The borders of Poland were consolidated. The confrontation between Stalin and Truman ended with mutual accusations of seeking world domination. It was not until the Paris Conference that peace treaties with Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Finland were prepared and signed in 1947. The Allied occupation of Austria continued until 1955. The Allied powers, except the USSR, signed a peace treaty with Japan. Germany never signed a formal peace treaty.
The Vietnam War (1957-1975)
The French evacuated Indochina, and the Geneva Conference of 1954 confirmed the division of the land into two states. The leader of communist North Vietnam announced the decision to send troops to conquer South Vietnam, whose regime had refused to hold elections aimed at reunification. In 1960, South Vietnamese communists founded the National Liberation Front, whose armed wing, the Viet Cong, supported the offensive for reunification with the North. South Vietnam had the support of the United States, while North Vietnam was supported by the USSR. The Americans supplied arms and troops to South Vietnam. The conflict intensified, and aid was maximized under President Lyndon Johnson. The U.S. faced a population that did not surrender easily, even with the use of chemical warfare and firebombing of civilians. Negotiations were disrupted by protests, particularly from young people, in 1968. The following year, President Nixon advocated for the withdrawal of foreign troops to limit the conflict between Vietnamese troops, while simultaneously increasing U.S. bombing. In January 1973, talks ended with the signing of the Paris Peace Accords, which arranged a ceasefire and the end of U.S. military aid. In 1975, the withdrawal of U.S. troops was completed.
Dissidence and the Decline of Western Bloc Cohesion
In Europe and the U.S., leadership and the climate of confrontation with the Eastern bloc were questioned. Some countries leaned toward more independence and a policy of conciliation. German Chancellor Willy Brandt’s Ostpolitik (1970) was an attempt at rapprochement with the Eastern bloc. This policy involved establishing concrete talks with the USSR and Poland, recognizing the division of Germany, and engaging with counterparts in the Democratic Republic. The normalization of relations between the two Germanies resulted in both being admitted to the UN in 1973. France was one of the states most reluctant to accept U.S. leadership. It refused to place its fleet under NATO guidelines and maintained an independent foreign policy. France also initiated a plan to achieve independence in nuclear technology and diplomatic relations. The Council of Europe and Franco-German rapprochement inaugurated a policy of collaboration between European countries. The signing of the Treaty of Rome led to the creation of the European Economic Community. For many Europeans, the U.S. intervention in Asia was seen as unjustifiable aggression, and its policy in Latin America generated criticism.