Post-WWI Crisis: Rise of Fascism and Nazism
Post-WWI Crisis: Destruction and Instability
The aftermath of World War I saw the destruction of productive systems, significant losses for the Democratic Party, rampant inflation, war reparations, and substantial debts between countries. The Roaring Twenties brought a period of prosperity to the United States and Europe, marked by economic growth, cultural shifts like the rise of jazz, and social changes driven by consumerism and inflation. However, this period of growth led to the Great Depression, characterized by falling consumption, overproduction, the Wall Street Crash, and the bankruptcy of banks, factories, and farmers. Unemployment soared, and protests against capitalism emerged. U.S. President Roosevelt established the New Deal, an economic policy based on Keynesian ideas, advocating for state intervention to stimulate consumption, employment, and investment through measures like subsidies for farmers and reduced working hours.
The Rise of Authoritarian and Totalitarian Regimes
Authoritarianism and Totalitarianism are political regimes that reject individualism, democracy, and political pluralism. They impose a dictatorship and develop a planned economy with limited political freedom. Totalitarianism is an extreme version where the state controls everything, and opposition is repressed.
Italian Fascism
Italian Fascism rejected democracy, liberalism, and communism, employing violence and propaganda to maintain control. Due to the post-war crisis, political instability, fear of communism, and anger over the Treaty of Versailles, Mussolini created an extreme right-wing group in 1919. This group became the Fascist Party in 1921. After poor electoral results, Mussolini organized the March on Rome in October 1922, a mass demonstration of strength with 30,000 Blackshirts. King Victor Emmanuel III appointed Mussolini as Prime Minister, along with three Fascist ministers. Following the 1924 elections, which were marred by violence, two-thirds of the parliament were Fascist. In 1925, the assassination of Matteotti, an opposition leader, led to a failed attempt by the opposition to force the government’s hand by leaving parliament. Mussolini subsequently established a dictatorship. In foreign policy, the Treaty of Lateran in 1929 recognized Vatican independence, and Italy invaded Abyssinia in 1935.
Nazism in Germany
Germany, defeated and humiliated after WWI, was under the Weimar Republic. Hitler founded the NSDAP (National Socialist German Workers’ Party), promoting anti-Semitism, the Aryan race, the concept of vital space, anti-communism, and opposition to the Treaty of Versailles. He also established the SA (Assault Division) and the SS (personal army). In 1923, Hitler and 2,000 Nazis attempted to seize power in the Munich Putsch. Hitler was jailed for nine months, during which he wrote his manifesto, Mein Kampf. The Treaty of Locarno in 1925 allowed Germany to enter the League of Nations, reduced reparations, and saw France leave the Saar region.
After the Great Depression, the middle class was devastated by inflation and unemployment. The Nazi Party gained seats in parliament, becoming the most voted party in 1932, supported by farmers, the army, the unemployed, the middle class, and traditionalists. In 1933, Hitler was named Chancellor. After President Hindenburg’s death in 1934, Hitler established the Third Reich. He eliminated his opponents through events like the Reichstag Fire in February 1933, which targeted communists, and the Night of the Long Knives in June 1934, which targeted the SA and its leader, Ernst Röhm. Nazi control over society and the economy was enforced through propaganda and censorship.
Anti-Semitism Under Nazi Rule
- 1933: Denial of rights to Jewish people.
- Nuremberg Laws (1935): Stripped Jewish people of rights and citizenship.
- 1938: SS attacks on Jewish homes.
- Final Solution: Implementation of concentration camps for the systematic extermination of Jewish people.
The Four-Year Plan aimed to combat unemployment and the economic crisis. Nazi foreign policy was based on rejecting the Treaty of Versailles and included intervention in the Spanish Civil War.
Lead-up to World War II
In March 1938, Germany occupied and annexed Austria, forming the Anschluss. The Munich Conference in September 1938 exemplified the policy of appeasement, where concessions were given to aggressive countries to avoid war and focus on domestic problems.
Arguments for Appeasement
- The UK and France were not ready for war.
- Hitler could potentially stop the spread of communism.
- Stalin was considered worse than Hitler.
- The Treaty of Versailles was deemed unfair.
Arguments against Appeasement
- Concessions to Hitler were seen as a sign of weakness.
- There was no guarantee that Hitler would stop invading.
- Hitler would use the opportunity to rearm.
The Sudetenland was given to Germany, which then took control of Czech territory. In May 1939, the Pact of Steel was signed with Mussolini. In June, the Nazi-Soviet Pact was signed, a ten-year non-aggression agreement between Germany and the USSR, including a secret agreement to divide Poland. Germany’s reasons included avoiding a two-front war, recovering more land, and potentially using proximity to Russia to eventually combat communism. The USSR’s reasons included gaining time to rearm against Hitler and recovering Baltic territories.