Post-WWI Peace Treaties: Reshaping Central & Eastern Europe
Treaty of St. Germain (1919): Austria
This treaty was signed in 1919 and dealt with Austria following World War I. Key terms included:
- Territorial Losses: Austria lost Bohemia to Czechoslovakia; Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Croatia to Yugoslavia; South Tyrol, Tarvisio, and parts of Carinthia to Italy; and Galicia to Poland.
- Political Restrictions: Anschluss (political union with Germany) was forbidden.
- Military Limitations: Conscription was banned, a navy was forbidden, and the army was limited to 30,000 men.
- Reparations: Austria was required to pay reparations starting in May 1921, although the amount was never finalized, and payments were not made.
Effects: Austria lost significant industrial land, leading to economic weakness. It was also forced to recognize the independence of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Yugoslavia.
Treaty of Neuilly (1919): Bulgaria
Signed in November 1919, this treaty addressed Bulgaria’s role in the war:
- Territorial Losses: Bulgaria lost Western Thrace to Greece (cutting off its direct access to the Aegean Sea) and territory in western Bulgaria to Yugoslavia.
- Military Limitations: The army was restricted to 20,000 men. Torpedo boats and heavy artillery were forbidden.
- Reparations: Bulgaria was ordered to pay £100 million in reparations.
Effects: Bulgaria had to recognize the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia) and suffered significant economic hardship.
Treaty of Trianon (1920): Hungary
This treaty, signed in 1920, dealt with Hungary:
- Territorial Losses: Hungary lost Transylvania and part of the Banat to Romania; Slovakia and Ruthenia to Czechoslovakia; and Croatia and Slavonia to Yugoslavia. Overall, Hungary lost approximately 70% of its pre-war territory.
- Military Limitations: The army was reduced to 35,000 men, and heavy artillery and armored vehicles were prohibited.
- Reparations: Hungary was ordered to pay 200 million gold crowns, but these reparations were largely unpaid.
Effects: Hungary became a landlocked nation, losing access to the sea. The significant territorial losses resulted in approximately 3.3 million ethnic Hungarians living outside Hungary’s new borders.
Treaty of Sèvres (1920): Ottoman Empire
Signed in August 1920, this treaty aimed to partition the Ottoman Empire:
- Territorial Losses: Smyrna (İzmir) and Eastern Thrace were ceded to Greece; the Dodecanese Islands and Rhodes went to Italy; Syria and Lebanon became mandates under French control; Iraq, Palestine, and Transjordan became mandates under British control; and the Dardanelles Strait was internationalized.
- Military Limitations: The army was limited to 50,700 men. Conscription and an air force were forbidden, and the navy was severely restricted.
Effects: The terms, especially the cession of Smyrna to rival Greece, were seen as a national humiliation in Turkey.
Treaty of Lausanne (1923): Turkey
The harsh terms of Sèvres were challenged by Turkish nationalists led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. The Ottoman government signed Sèvres, but Kemal’s movement rejected it, leading to the Turkish War of Independence. Three years later, a new treaty replaced Sèvres:
- Key Changes: The Treaty of Lausanne recognized the modern borders of Turkey. Smyrna (İzmir), Eastern Thrace, and other territories were returned to Turkish sovereignty. Foreign mandates and spheres of influence were abolished, and no reparations were imposed. Military restrictions were far less severe than under Sèvres.
Why the Treaty of Sèvres Was Replaced
Several factors led to the renegotiation and replacement of the Treaty of Sèvres:
- Turkish Nationalist Resistance: The new Turkish nationalist government, led by Mustafa Kemal, rejected the treaty signed by the defeated Ottoman Sultan’s government. Kemal’s successful nationalist movement overthrew the Sultanate during the Turkish War of Independence and refused to recognize Sèvres.
- Allied Reluctance for Further Conflict: The Allied powers (Britain, France, Italy), weary after World War I, were unwilling to commit the necessary military forces to impose the harsh Sèvres terms on the determined Turkish nationalists.
- Turkish Military Success: Widespread Turkish anger over the perceived unfairness of Sèvres fueled the nationalist cause. Kemal’s military victories, particularly driving Greek forces out of Anatolia (including Smyrna), demonstrated that Sèvres was unenforceable and forced the Allies to negotiate a new settlement, resulting in the Treaty of Lausanne.