Prehistoric Iberian Peninsula: From Paleolithic to Roman Conquest
1. The Paleolithic Era
Lower Paleolithic
In the Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos), new discoveries have challenged established theories. In 1994, the Gran Dolina chasm revealed remains dating back 780,000 years, with further findings pushing the timeline back to 1,200,000 years. These represent the oldest hominid remains found in Europe, distinct from Homo erectus. A new hypothesis proposes that Homo antecessor, discovered in Atapuerca, served as an intermediate link between Homo erectus and the two species that expanded into Eurasia during the Middle Pleistocene: Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens.
These early hominids were characterized as hunters, gathering in small groups without permanent settlements. They established temporary camps in outdoor locations near rivers.
Middle Paleolithic
This period is associated with Neanderthals in Europe, who developed a distinct culture spanning from 100,000 to 35,000 years ago, largely coinciding with the Würm glaciation. Initially thought to be an evolution of Homo erectus, the Atapuerca findings suggest a direct lineage from Homo antecessor.
Neanderthals were skilled hunters with robust physiques and brain development comparable to modern humans. They exhibited greater cultural diversity than their predecessors, adapting to a more variable climate by seeking refuge in caves and developing advanced techniques like hunting large animals and utilizing hides. Evidence suggests they also held spiritual beliefs, particularly related to burial practices.
Upper Paleolithic
In Europe, from 35,000 to 8,000 BC, this period is associated with Homo sapiens, the species that replaced Neanderthals. Their culture was highly advanced, and they lived in huts in open areas or caves. They occupied areas suitable for nomadic hunting, with numerous sites indicating a high population density. Their diet was more diversified, including fishing, fruit gathering, and shellfish consumption. They developed a variety of tools, including those made from bone, horn, and ivory, and created decorative objects. Cultural and artistic expression flourished, as evidenced by ornaments, burials, funerary offerings, and the remarkable rock paintings found in caves like El Castillo, Altamira, Tito Bustillo, and some in northern Burgos.
2. The Neolithic and Metal Ages
Epipaleolithic
From 9,000 to 6,000 BC, this period is characterized by global warming and economic diversification, including fruit gathering, small game hunting, and fishing. A small stone industry emerged, producing microliths that were adapted to wooden handles and hafting, reflecting a more practical and specialized approach to toolmaking.
Neolithic
Beginning in Spain in the sixth millennium BC, later than in the rest of Europe, the Neolithic period saw the development of agriculture, leading to a sedentary lifestyle. Farming and livestock provided controlled food production, resulting in a division of labor and the emergence of social differences. Agricultural implements were developed, along with sophisticated tools made of wood and bone. Pottery became widespread, playing a crucial role in food preservation and cooking.
Chalcolithic
The use of metals marked a significant advancement in cultural development. Copper lends its name to this initial phase of the Metal Age. Several distinct cultures emerged in Spain:
- Between 2500 and 1800 BC, the Los Millares culture flourished in the region of Murcia and Almería. This society was densely populated and practiced irrigated agriculture.
- The Beaker Culture, between 2200 and 1700 BC, spread throughout Europe. It is distinguished by its characteristic ceramic bowls and bell-shaped vases.
- Megalithic monuments, large collective burial structures common throughout Europe, appeared in the Atlantic region, indicating a developing religious practice.
Bronze Age
In Spain, the Bronze Age lasted from 1700 to 750 BC, witnessing a mix of Bronze Age, Iron Age, and Mediterranean settlements. In the early phase, the most prominent culture was El Argar in Almería, between 1700 and 1400 BC. This society focused on agriculture, livestock, and, to a lesser extent, metal exploitation.
The Late Bronze Age saw the rise of the Urnfield culture (associated with Celtic or Indo-European expansion), named for the custom of burying the dead in pottery urns, with or without grave goods.
3. The Pre-Roman Peoples
Tartessos
The oldest known culture of the first millennium BC, Tartessos thrived in western Andalusia and southern Portugal. Limited information is available from Greek and Roman sources and archaeological finds. They achieved a degree of prosperity through livestock, agriculture, and mining. Their peak development, between the ninth and eighth centuries BC, coincided with the Phoenician establishment of coastal trading posts to acquire metals (gold, silver, iron, tin) in exchange for manufactured goods. Tartessos declined from the sixth century BC onwards.
The Iberians
The Iberian culture extended along the eastern coast of Spain, from the Pyrenees to Gades (Cadiz), with its most significant presence in the middle valleys of the Guadalquivir and Ebro rivers. They established settlements on elevated terrain, relying on agriculture and livestock, but also engaging in trade with mineral products and handcrafted goods. The Roman conquest of Carthage disrupted their development and ultimately led to their subjugation. The Iberians were culturally advanced, possessing their own undeciphered language, distinct religious practices, and burial rites. Notable artistic remains include the Lady of Elche and the Lady of Baza.
The Pre-Celtic and Celtic Peoples
A diverse group of peoples inhabited the plateaus and northern Spain during the Roman conquest. These primarily agricultural communities were organized into tribal groups, living in small but well-fortified villages. They possessed advanced ferrous metallurgy and textile craftsmanship. These groups included the Basques in Navarre, as well as those in Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, and other regions.
4. Colonization
Phoenicians
The Phoenician presence was primarily limited to the Andalusian coast. Gadir (Cadiz) served as the main hub for Phoenician trade with Tartessos. Phoenician settlements dating back to the eighth century BC have been discovered along the coasts of Malaga and Granada, although older artifacts exist. These settlements functioned as trading posts, facilitating the exchange of goods with metal production centers inland. The Phoenicians are credited with introducing the alphabet, ironworking techniques, and the potter’s wheel to the region.
The Greeks
Limited evidence of Greek presence exists beyond textual references. The only confirmed settlement is Emporion (Ampurias), established around 600 BC. It quickly became a prosperous colony, serving as a major trading center with the interior. Greek influence on the Iberian tribes they interacted with is evident in art, language, and cultural practices.
The Carthaginians
Carthaginian influence in the Iberian Peninsula spanned the fourth and third centuries BC. They replaced Phoenician traders and established settlements that controlled trade in raw materials from the interior, leaving a lasting impact on Iberian cultures.
5. The Roman Conquest
Between 264 and 146 BC, the Punic Wars raged between Rome and Carthage for control of the Mediterranean. Seeking resources and mercenaries, the Carthaginians dispatched an army in 237 BC that gained control of southern Spain. In 227 BC, they founded Carthago Nova (Cartagena), their main base. This expansion alarmed Rome, leading to conflict after the fall of Sagunto. The complex war unfolded in Italy, North Africa, and Spain, culminating in Rome’s victory and the collapse of Carthage.
The Romans landed in Spain with the support of Iberian tribes and expelled the Carthaginians. Their objectives were to extract economic resources, plunder, enslave the indigenous population, and achieve military glory. Conflicts with indigenous peoples were frequent:
- Between 155 and 133 BC, Celtic tribes in the north, including the Arevaci and Pelendones, fiercely resisted Roman expansion. The war was brutal, marked by harsh reprisals. The resilience of the city of Numancia, which withstood a siege of nearly twenty years before surrendering in 133 BC, stands as a testament to the resistance faced by the Romans.
- On the western side of the peninsula, between the Douro and Tagus rivers, the Lusitanians fought a guerrilla war against Rome, led by Viriathus until his assassination. His death marked the end of significant Lusitanian resistance.
6. Romanization and the Survival of Roman Cultural Heritage
a) Cities and Economic Activities
Cities, connected by an extensive network of Roman roads, became centers of economic and social life in Hispania. Roman urban planning and civil engineering left a lasting legacy, evident in the remains of temples, forums, markets, theaters, circuses, aqueducts, bridges, and other structures. The Roman economy focused on mining, agricultural production (wheat, vines, and olives), livestock, and the production of salted goods. For 700 years, the Romans controlled and exploited the peninsula’s resources.
Silver mining was of particular interest, followed by gold mining in the northwest after Augustus’s conquest. Other important minerals included mercury from Almaden, tin from the Galician coast, and lead. The state directly controlled most mining operations.
In the artisanal sector, the salting industry remained significant. Pottery production also flourished, particularly the manufacture of amphorae for transporting goods. Overall, the Roman economic system in Hispania was colonial, with the export of raw materials and the import of manufactured goods from Italy and other Mediterranean regions.
The Romans introduced the Roman plow, expanded irrigation systems, built mills, and implemented new methods for preserving food and manufacturing ceramics and construction materials. They also scaled up olive and vine cultivation, improving the quality of these products, which became major exports from Hispania.